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Opposition to the Bektāshī Order in Egypt

Year 2012, Volume: 3 Issue: 1, 51 - 72, 29.09.2012
https://doi.org/10.12730/13091719.2012.31.49

Abstract

Since its appearance on the stage of history, the Bektāshī Order has been subject to criticisms, whose level and quality changes due to circumstances, from various societies throughout the world because of the Order’s beliefs and practices. The representatives of the Bektāshī Order in Egypt, where it has continued its activities for years, have been occasionally ex-posed to attacks from opponents in the region. The scarcity of texts produced before the 19th century, however, does not allow for objective commentary on those publications that condemn the Bektāshī Order. However, after 1826, the year when the Bektāshī Order was banned throughout the Ottoman lands, it became exceedingly difficult to find any-thing related to the early publications. In this article, activities against the Bektāshī Order that were carried out in Egypt for approximately five centuries, and some important claims that were included in the relevant publications are chronologically evaluated. In this regard, it is observed that some works referenced in this paper were actually extensions of the publications generated in Anatolia at that time. The Bektāshī Order, from its initial appearance on the stage of history forward, was equalized by certain movements, such as the Anatolian Alevism, which did not present a homogeneous structure in terms of its beliefs and practices. This situation resulted in observations and comments being made about the Order that were based on sweeping and erroneous judgments that ultimately led to negative and opposing attitudes regarding the Bektāshī Order. The fact that the Bektāshī Order “could not express itself directly and the way it should be” because it was comprised of a group of people who were of non-Arabic origin, such as Turks and Albanians, and, as a group, it did not reach out to the masses, has allowed for criticisms and accusations based on unsupported and fallacious claims.

References

  • ʿAbd al-Khāliq, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān, al-Fikr al-ṣūfī fī ḍawʾ al-kitāb wa-l-sunna (3rd edn., al-Kuwait: Maktabat Ibn Taymiyya, 1986).
  • Aḥmad Rifʿat Efendī, Sayyid, Mirʾāt al-maqāṣid fī dafʿ al-mafāsid (Istanbul: Ibrāhīm Efendī Maṭbaʿasi, 1293 H [1876-1877?]).
  • Aḥmad Sirrī Dede Baba, al-Risāla al-Aḥmadiyya fī tārīkh al-ṭarīqa al-Bektāshiyya (4th edn., Cairo: Maṭbaʿat ʿAbduh & Anwar Aḥmad, 1959).
  • Akyıldız, Ali, "Mehmed Ârif Bey [Meḥmed ʿĀrif Beg]," Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslâm Ansiklopedisi (DİA) [Turkish Religious Foundation Encyclopedia of Islam], XXVIII, 443.
  • Arslān, Amīr Shakīb, Ḥāḍir al-ʿālam al-Islāmī (expanded version of the Arabic translation of Lothrop Stoddard's The New World of Islam which was translated into Arabic by ʿAjjāj Nuwayhiḍ; vol. I, Cairo: al-Maktaba al-Salafiyya, 1343 H [1924], vol. II, Cairo: Dār Iḥyāʾ al-Kutub al-ʿArabiyya ʿĪsā el-Bābī al-Ḥalabī wa-Shurakāʾuhū, 1352 H [1933]).
  • Arslān, Amīr Shakīb, (as Emir Şekib Arslan), İttihatçı Bir Arap Aydınının Anıları [Sīrat Amīr Shakīb Arslān] (translated into Turkish by Halit Özkan; Istanbul: Klasik Yayınları, 2005).
  • Awliyāʾ Chalabī, Evliya Çelebi Seyahatnamesi: Mısır, Sudan, Habeş (1672-1680) [Sayāḥat-nāma of Awliyāʾ Chalabī: Miṣr, Sūdān, Ḥabash (1672-1680)] (vol. X, Istanbul: Devlet Basımevi, 1938).
  • Bursali Meḥmed Ṭāhir, ʿUthmānlī Muʾalliflari [Ottoman Authors] , 3 vols., (Istanbul: Maṭbaʿa-i ʿĀmira, 1333 H [1915]).
  • Cleveland, William L., Batı'ya Karşı İslam, Şekip Arslan'ın Mücadelesi [=Islam against the West: Shakīb Arslān and the Campaign for Islamic Nationalism] (translated into Turkish by Selahattin Ayaz; Istanbul: Yöneliş Yayınları, 1991).
  • Çift, Salih, "1826 Sonrasında Bektâşilik ve Bu Alanla İlgili Yayın Faaliyetleri [The Bektāshī Order after 1826 and Their Literary Activities]," Uludağ Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi [The Review of the Faculty of Theology, Uludağ University] XII/I (2003), 249-268.
  • al-Daghīm, Muḥammad al-Sayyid, "Meḥmed ʿAlī Pasha min wijhat naẓarin ʿUthmāniyyatin," http://www.dr-mahmoud.com/content/view/244/39
  • http://www.coptichistory.org/new_page_7412.htm
  • Darwīsh, Hudā, "al-Manhaj al-ṣūfī li-l-ṭarīqa al-Bektāshiyya wa-taʾthīruhū ʿalā l-sulṭa al-ḥākima fī Turkiyā," Majallat Kulliyat al-ādāb (November 2001), 1-71.
  • Dawestashy, Esmat [ʿIṣmat Dāwistāshī], al-Ramla al-Bayḍā (Dhikrayāt Sakandarī): al-Juzʾ al-Awwal (1943-1963) (al-Iskandariyya: Catalogue 77, 2004).
  • de Jong, Frederick, "Aspects of the Political Involvement of Sufi Orders in Twentieth Century Egypt (1907-1970), an Exploratory Stock-Taking," in idem. (ed.), Sufi Orders in Ottoman and Post-Ottoman Egypt and the Middle East (Istanbul: The Isis Press, 1995), 161-184.
  • de Jong, Frederick, "Opposition to Sufism in Twentieth-Century Egypt (1900-1970): A Preliminary Survey," in Frederick de Jong and Bernd Radtke (eds.), Islamic Mysticism Contested: Thirteen Centuries of Controversies & Polemics (Leiden & Boston: Brill, 1999), 310-323.
  • al-Dhahabī, Muḥammad Ḥusayn, al-Tafsīr wa-l-mufassirūn, 3 vols., (Cairo: Dār al-Ḥadīth, 2005).
  • al-Dhahabī, Muṣṭafā Muḥammad, "Tarjamat al-shahīd al-Dhahabī," in Muḥammad Ḥusayn al-Dhahabī, al-Tafsīr wa-l-mufassirūn, 3 vols., (Cairo: Dār al-Ḥadīth, 2005), 5-8.
  • Fatāwā dār al-iftāʾ li-muddat miʾati ʿāmin, mawḍūʿ: 679, http://www.islamic.council.gov.eg & http://www.alazhr.org (01.12.2011), the official websites of the institutions in Egypt.
  • Fernandes, Leonor, "Some Aspects of the Zāwiya in Egypt at the Eve of the Ottoman Conquest," Annales Islamologiques 19 (1983), 9-17.
  • Görgün, Hilal, "Mısır [Egypt]", Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslâm Ansiklopedisi (DİA) [Turkish Religious Foundation Encyclopedia of Islam], XXIX, 577-584.
  • Hasluck, Frederick William, Christianity and Islam under the Sultans (Istanbul: The Isis Press, 2000).
  • Homerin, Th. Emil, "Sufis and their Detractors in Mamluk Egypt: A Survey of Protagonists and Institutional Settings," in Frederick de Jong and Bernd Radtke (eds.), Islamic Mysticism Contested: Thirteen Centuries of Controversies & Polemics (Leiden & Boston: Brill, 1999), 225-248.
  • Kafāfī, Ḥusayn, al-Khidīwī Ismāʿīl wa-maʿshūqatuhū Miṣr (Cairo: al-Hayʾa al-Miṣriyya al-ʿĀmma li-l-Kitāb, 1994).
  • Kara, Mustafa, "İshak Efendi, Harputlu [Isḥāq Efendī of Kharbūṭ]," Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslâm Ansiklopedisi (DİA) [Turkish Religious Foundation Encyclopedia of Islam] , XXII, 531-532.
  • Little, Donald P., "The Nature of Khānqāhs, Ribāṭs, and Zāwiyas under the Mamlūks," in Wael B. Hallaq and Donald P. Little (eds.), Islamic Studies Presented to Charles J. Adams (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1991), 91-105.
  • Maḥjūb, Fāṭima, al-Mawsūʿa al-dhahabiyya li-l-ʿulūm al-Islāmiyya, 21 vols., (Cairo: Dār al-Ghad al-ʿArabī, n.d.).
  • Marsot, Afaf Lutfi al-Sayyid, Egypt in the reign of Muhammad Ali (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984).
  • Meḥmed ʿĀrif Beg, Binbir Ḥadīth [One Thousand and One Ḥadīth] (Cairo: Jarīda Maṭbaʿasi, 1325 H [1909]).
  • Meḥmed ʿĀrif Beg, Başımıza Gelenler [What Happened to Us] , 3 vols., (mod-ernized version by M. Ertuğrul Düzdağ; Istanbul: Tercüman 1001 Temel Eser, n.d.).
  • Meḥmed Surayyā, Sijill-i ʿUthmānī, 4 vols., (Istanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları, 1996).
  • Noyan, Bedri (Dedebaba), Bütün Yönleriyle Bektâşîlik ve Alevîlik [Bektāshism and Alevism in All Aspects] , 8 vols., (vol. V, Ankara: Ardıç Yayınları, 2002).
  • Nur, Rıza, "Kaygusuz Abdal, Gaybi Bey, Kahire Bektaşi Tekyesinde Bir Manüskırı [Kaygusuz Abdal, Ghaybī Beg, A Manuscript in the Bektāshī Tekke of Cairo]," Türk Bilig Revüsü (Revue de Turcologie) II/1 (1935), 77-98.
  • al-Qāsim, Maḥmūd ʿAbd al-Raʾūf, al-Kashf ʿan ḥaqīqat al-ṣūfiyya li-awwal marra fī l-tārīkh (Amman: al-Maktaba al-Islāmiyya, 1992).
  • al-Rāfiʿī, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān, ʿAṣr Ismāʿīl, 2 vols., (3rd edn., Cairo: Dār al-Maʿārif, 1982).
  • Rexhebi [Rajab] Ferdi Baba, Misticizma Islame dhe Bektashizma [Islamic Mysticism and Bektāshism] (Tirana, Shtypshkronja Sindikalisti, 1995).
  • Rifqī, Aḥmad, Bektāshī Sirri I [Bektāshī Secret I] (Istanbul: ʿAṣr Maṭbaʿasi, 1325 H [1907]).
  • Rifqī, Aḥmad, Bektāshī Sirri II [Bektāshī Secret II] (Istanbul: Manẓūma-i Afkār Maṭbaʿasi, 1328 H [1910]).
  • Sinoué, Gilbert, Kavalalı Mehmet Ali Paşa: Son Firavun [Meḥmed ʿAlī Pasha of Kavala: the Last Pharaoh, =Le Dernier Pharaoh] (translated into Turkish by Ali Cevat Akkoyunlu; Istanbul: Doğan Kitapçılık, 1999).
  • Stadiem, William, Too Rich: The High Life and Tragic Death of King Farouk (New York: Carroll & Graf Pub., 1991).
  • al-Ṭawīl, Tawfīq, al-Taṣawwuf fī Miṣr ibbāna l-ʿaṣr al-ʿUthmānī, 2 vols., (Cairo: al-Hayʾa al-Miṣriyya al-ʿĀmma li-l-Kitāb, 1988).
  • Usluer, Fatih, Hurufilik: İlk Elden Kaynaklarla Doğuşundan İtibaren [Ḥurūfism: From its Emergence through First-Hand Sources] (Is-tanbul: Kabalcı Yayınevi, 2009).
  • Witkam, Jan Just, Catalogue of Arabic Manuscripts in the Library of Leiden and Other Collections in the Netherlands: Fascicule 5 (Leiden: E. J. Brill & Leiden University Press, 1989).
  • Yūsuf, Muḥammad Ṣabrī Muḥammad, Dawr al-mutaṣawwifa fī tārīkh Miṣr fī l-ʿaṣr al-ʿUthmānī (1517-1798 M) (Bilbīs: Dār al-Ṭaqwā, 1994).
  • http://www.coptichistory.org/new_page_7412.htm

Opposition to the Bektāshī Order in Egypt

Year 2012, Volume: 3 Issue: 1, 51 - 72, 29.09.2012
https://doi.org/10.12730/13091719.2012.31.49

Abstract

Since its appearance on the stage of history, the Bektāshī Order has been subject to criticisms, whose level and quality changes due to circumstances, from various societies throughout the world because of the Order’s beliefs and practices. The representatives of the Bektāshī Order in Egypt, where it has continued its activities for years, have been occasionally ex-posed to attacks from opponents in the region. The scarcity of texts produced before the 19th century, however, does not allow for objective commentary on those publications that condemn the Bektāshī Order. However, after 1826, the year when the Bektāshī Order was banned throughout the Ottoman lands, it became exceedingly difficult to find any-thing related to the early publications. In this article, activities against the Bektāshī Order that were carried out in Egypt for approximately five centuries, and some important claims that were included in the relevant publications are chronologically evaluated. In this regard, it is observed that some works referenced in this paper were actually extensions of the publications generated in Anatolia at that time. The Bektāshī Order, from its initial appearance on the stage of history forward, was equalized by certain movements, such as the Anatolian Alevism, which did not present a homogeneous structure in terms of its beliefs and practices. This situation resulted in observations and comments being made about the Order that were based on sweeping and erroneous judgments that ultimately led to negative and opposing attitudes regarding the Bektāshī Order. The fact that the Bektāshī Order “could not express itself directly and the way it should be” because it was comprised of a group of people who were of non-Arabic origin, such as Turks and Albanians, and, as a group, it did not reach out to the masses, has allowed for criticisms and accusations based on unsupported and fallacious claims.

References

  • ʿAbd al-Khāliq, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān, al-Fikr al-ṣūfī fī ḍawʾ al-kitāb wa-l-sunna (3rd edn., al-Kuwait: Maktabat Ibn Taymiyya, 1986).
  • Aḥmad Rifʿat Efendī, Sayyid, Mirʾāt al-maqāṣid fī dafʿ al-mafāsid (Istanbul: Ibrāhīm Efendī Maṭbaʿasi, 1293 H [1876-1877?]).
  • Aḥmad Sirrī Dede Baba, al-Risāla al-Aḥmadiyya fī tārīkh al-ṭarīqa al-Bektāshiyya (4th edn., Cairo: Maṭbaʿat ʿAbduh & Anwar Aḥmad, 1959).
  • Akyıldız, Ali, "Mehmed Ârif Bey [Meḥmed ʿĀrif Beg]," Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslâm Ansiklopedisi (DİA) [Turkish Religious Foundation Encyclopedia of Islam], XXVIII, 443.
  • Arslān, Amīr Shakīb, Ḥāḍir al-ʿālam al-Islāmī (expanded version of the Arabic translation of Lothrop Stoddard's The New World of Islam which was translated into Arabic by ʿAjjāj Nuwayhiḍ; vol. I, Cairo: al-Maktaba al-Salafiyya, 1343 H [1924], vol. II, Cairo: Dār Iḥyāʾ al-Kutub al-ʿArabiyya ʿĪsā el-Bābī al-Ḥalabī wa-Shurakāʾuhū, 1352 H [1933]).
  • Arslān, Amīr Shakīb, (as Emir Şekib Arslan), İttihatçı Bir Arap Aydınının Anıları [Sīrat Amīr Shakīb Arslān] (translated into Turkish by Halit Özkan; Istanbul: Klasik Yayınları, 2005).
  • Awliyāʾ Chalabī, Evliya Çelebi Seyahatnamesi: Mısır, Sudan, Habeş (1672-1680) [Sayāḥat-nāma of Awliyāʾ Chalabī: Miṣr, Sūdān, Ḥabash (1672-1680)] (vol. X, Istanbul: Devlet Basımevi, 1938).
  • Bursali Meḥmed Ṭāhir, ʿUthmānlī Muʾalliflari [Ottoman Authors] , 3 vols., (Istanbul: Maṭbaʿa-i ʿĀmira, 1333 H [1915]).
  • Cleveland, William L., Batı'ya Karşı İslam, Şekip Arslan'ın Mücadelesi [=Islam against the West: Shakīb Arslān and the Campaign for Islamic Nationalism] (translated into Turkish by Selahattin Ayaz; Istanbul: Yöneliş Yayınları, 1991).
  • Çift, Salih, "1826 Sonrasında Bektâşilik ve Bu Alanla İlgili Yayın Faaliyetleri [The Bektāshī Order after 1826 and Their Literary Activities]," Uludağ Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi [The Review of the Faculty of Theology, Uludağ University] XII/I (2003), 249-268.
  • al-Daghīm, Muḥammad al-Sayyid, "Meḥmed ʿAlī Pasha min wijhat naẓarin ʿUthmāniyyatin," http://www.dr-mahmoud.com/content/view/244/39
  • http://www.coptichistory.org/new_page_7412.htm
  • Darwīsh, Hudā, "al-Manhaj al-ṣūfī li-l-ṭarīqa al-Bektāshiyya wa-taʾthīruhū ʿalā l-sulṭa al-ḥākima fī Turkiyā," Majallat Kulliyat al-ādāb (November 2001), 1-71.
  • Dawestashy, Esmat [ʿIṣmat Dāwistāshī], al-Ramla al-Bayḍā (Dhikrayāt Sakandarī): al-Juzʾ al-Awwal (1943-1963) (al-Iskandariyya: Catalogue 77, 2004).
  • de Jong, Frederick, "Aspects of the Political Involvement of Sufi Orders in Twentieth Century Egypt (1907-1970), an Exploratory Stock-Taking," in idem. (ed.), Sufi Orders in Ottoman and Post-Ottoman Egypt and the Middle East (Istanbul: The Isis Press, 1995), 161-184.
  • de Jong, Frederick, "Opposition to Sufism in Twentieth-Century Egypt (1900-1970): A Preliminary Survey," in Frederick de Jong and Bernd Radtke (eds.), Islamic Mysticism Contested: Thirteen Centuries of Controversies & Polemics (Leiden & Boston: Brill, 1999), 310-323.
  • al-Dhahabī, Muḥammad Ḥusayn, al-Tafsīr wa-l-mufassirūn, 3 vols., (Cairo: Dār al-Ḥadīth, 2005).
  • al-Dhahabī, Muṣṭafā Muḥammad, "Tarjamat al-shahīd al-Dhahabī," in Muḥammad Ḥusayn al-Dhahabī, al-Tafsīr wa-l-mufassirūn, 3 vols., (Cairo: Dār al-Ḥadīth, 2005), 5-8.
  • Fatāwā dār al-iftāʾ li-muddat miʾati ʿāmin, mawḍūʿ: 679, http://www.islamic.council.gov.eg & http://www.alazhr.org (01.12.2011), the official websites of the institutions in Egypt.
  • Fernandes, Leonor, "Some Aspects of the Zāwiya in Egypt at the Eve of the Ottoman Conquest," Annales Islamologiques 19 (1983), 9-17.
  • Görgün, Hilal, "Mısır [Egypt]", Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslâm Ansiklopedisi (DİA) [Turkish Religious Foundation Encyclopedia of Islam], XXIX, 577-584.
  • Hasluck, Frederick William, Christianity and Islam under the Sultans (Istanbul: The Isis Press, 2000).
  • Homerin, Th. Emil, "Sufis and their Detractors in Mamluk Egypt: A Survey of Protagonists and Institutional Settings," in Frederick de Jong and Bernd Radtke (eds.), Islamic Mysticism Contested: Thirteen Centuries of Controversies & Polemics (Leiden & Boston: Brill, 1999), 225-248.
  • Kafāfī, Ḥusayn, al-Khidīwī Ismāʿīl wa-maʿshūqatuhū Miṣr (Cairo: al-Hayʾa al-Miṣriyya al-ʿĀmma li-l-Kitāb, 1994).
  • Kara, Mustafa, "İshak Efendi, Harputlu [Isḥāq Efendī of Kharbūṭ]," Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslâm Ansiklopedisi (DİA) [Turkish Religious Foundation Encyclopedia of Islam] , XXII, 531-532.
  • Little, Donald P., "The Nature of Khānqāhs, Ribāṭs, and Zāwiyas under the Mamlūks," in Wael B. Hallaq and Donald P. Little (eds.), Islamic Studies Presented to Charles J. Adams (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1991), 91-105.
  • Maḥjūb, Fāṭima, al-Mawsūʿa al-dhahabiyya li-l-ʿulūm al-Islāmiyya, 21 vols., (Cairo: Dār al-Ghad al-ʿArabī, n.d.).
  • Marsot, Afaf Lutfi al-Sayyid, Egypt in the reign of Muhammad Ali (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984).
  • Meḥmed ʿĀrif Beg, Binbir Ḥadīth [One Thousand and One Ḥadīth] (Cairo: Jarīda Maṭbaʿasi, 1325 H [1909]).
  • Meḥmed ʿĀrif Beg, Başımıza Gelenler [What Happened to Us] , 3 vols., (mod-ernized version by M. Ertuğrul Düzdağ; Istanbul: Tercüman 1001 Temel Eser, n.d.).
  • Meḥmed Surayyā, Sijill-i ʿUthmānī, 4 vols., (Istanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları, 1996).
  • Noyan, Bedri (Dedebaba), Bütün Yönleriyle Bektâşîlik ve Alevîlik [Bektāshism and Alevism in All Aspects] , 8 vols., (vol. V, Ankara: Ardıç Yayınları, 2002).
  • Nur, Rıza, "Kaygusuz Abdal, Gaybi Bey, Kahire Bektaşi Tekyesinde Bir Manüskırı [Kaygusuz Abdal, Ghaybī Beg, A Manuscript in the Bektāshī Tekke of Cairo]," Türk Bilig Revüsü (Revue de Turcologie) II/1 (1935), 77-98.
  • al-Qāsim, Maḥmūd ʿAbd al-Raʾūf, al-Kashf ʿan ḥaqīqat al-ṣūfiyya li-awwal marra fī l-tārīkh (Amman: al-Maktaba al-Islāmiyya, 1992).
  • al-Rāfiʿī, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān, ʿAṣr Ismāʿīl, 2 vols., (3rd edn., Cairo: Dār al-Maʿārif, 1982).
  • Rexhebi [Rajab] Ferdi Baba, Misticizma Islame dhe Bektashizma [Islamic Mysticism and Bektāshism] (Tirana, Shtypshkronja Sindikalisti, 1995).
  • Rifqī, Aḥmad, Bektāshī Sirri I [Bektāshī Secret I] (Istanbul: ʿAṣr Maṭbaʿasi, 1325 H [1907]).
  • Rifqī, Aḥmad, Bektāshī Sirri II [Bektāshī Secret II] (Istanbul: Manẓūma-i Afkār Maṭbaʿasi, 1328 H [1910]).
  • Sinoué, Gilbert, Kavalalı Mehmet Ali Paşa: Son Firavun [Meḥmed ʿAlī Pasha of Kavala: the Last Pharaoh, =Le Dernier Pharaoh] (translated into Turkish by Ali Cevat Akkoyunlu; Istanbul: Doğan Kitapçılık, 1999).
  • Stadiem, William, Too Rich: The High Life and Tragic Death of King Farouk (New York: Carroll & Graf Pub., 1991).
  • al-Ṭawīl, Tawfīq, al-Taṣawwuf fī Miṣr ibbāna l-ʿaṣr al-ʿUthmānī, 2 vols., (Cairo: al-Hayʾa al-Miṣriyya al-ʿĀmma li-l-Kitāb, 1988).
  • Usluer, Fatih, Hurufilik: İlk Elden Kaynaklarla Doğuşundan İtibaren [Ḥurūfism: From its Emergence through First-Hand Sources] (Is-tanbul: Kabalcı Yayınevi, 2009).
  • Witkam, Jan Just, Catalogue of Arabic Manuscripts in the Library of Leiden and Other Collections in the Netherlands: Fascicule 5 (Leiden: E. J. Brill & Leiden University Press, 1989).
  • Yūsuf, Muḥammad Ṣabrī Muḥammad, Dawr al-mutaṣawwifa fī tārīkh Miṣr fī l-ʿaṣr al-ʿUthmānī (1517-1798 M) (Bilbīs: Dār al-Ṭaqwā, 1994).
  • http://www.coptichistory.org/new_page_7412.htm
There are 45 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language English
Subjects Religious Studies
Journal Section Research Articles
Authors

Salih Çift 0000-0003-3675-4608

Publication Date September 29, 2012
Submission Date July 31, 2012
Published in Issue Year 2012 Volume: 3 Issue: 1

Cite

ISNAD Çift, Salih. “Opposition to the Bektāshī Order in Egypt”. Ilahiyat Studies 3/1 (September 2012), 51-72. https://doi.org/10.12730/13091719.2012.31.49.
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