Ücret Görüşmelerinde Cinsiyet Farklılığı: Ultimatom Oyunu Uygulaması

Year 2023, Volume: 12 Issue: 1, 195 - 210, 31.03.2023

Serkan Dilek , Rumeysa Yıldırım

https://doi.org/10.15869/itobiad.1132446

Cited By: 2

Abstract

Önemli bir ekonomik ve sosyal sorun olarak kabul edilen ücretlerdeki cinsiyet farkı, bireylerin davranışlarından kaynaklanabilmektedir. Türkiye'de kadınların işgücüne katılım oranının diğer OECD ülkelerine göre oldukça düşük olması da önemli bir sorundur. Kadınlar müzakerelerde gerçekten daha düşük ücretleri kabul edebilirler. Ancak, kadınların daha düşük teklifleri kabul edebileceği algısı, işverenlerin yaptığı teklifleri etkileyebilir. İşverenlerin bu tutumu, ücretlerde cinsiyet farkı oluşmasına ve kadınların işgücüne katılım oranının düşük olmasına neden olabilir. Ültimatom oyununu kullanarak pazarlık sırasında davranışsal cinsiyet farklılıklarını araştırdık. Fedakarlık, riskten kaçınma, cömertlik ve özgüven; tercihler ve dolayısıyla ücret pazarlığının sonuçları üzerinde önemli bir etkiye sahiptir. Ultimatom oyunu; fedakarlığı, riskten kaçınmayı ve cömertliği anlamak için etkili bir araçtır. Bu çalışmada iki önemli sonuç bulduk. Öncelikle; teklif verici, karşı tarafın cinsiyetini bildiğinde, kadınlara teklifleri erkeklere göre daha düşük teklifler sunar. İkincisi; karşı tarafın cinsiyeti bilindiğinde, kadın teklif vericiler, erkeklerden daha yüksek teklif vermektedir. Bu sonuçlar, işgücü piyasasındaki cinsiyetler arası gelir eşitsizliğinin işverenlerin (özellikle erkek işverenlerin) tutumlarından kaynaklanabileceğine yönelik kanıtlar sunmaktadır. Bu sonuçlar aslında Türkiye'de kadınların işgücüne katılım oranının neden düşük olduğunu açıklayabilir ancak bu konuda daha detaylı çalışmalara ihtiyaç vardır. Bu çalışma, Türkiye'de işverenlerin erkek ve kadın işçilerle ücret pazarlığını inceleyen az sayıdaki çalışmadan biri olarak literatüre katkı sağlamaktadır.

Keywords

Cinsiyet Eşitsizliği, Ultimatom Oyunu, Davranışsal Farklılıklar, Diğergamlık, Cömertlik, Kendine Güven, Ücret Pazarlığı, Ücret Görüşmeleri

Gender Differences in Wage Negotiations: An Ultimatum Game Experiment

Abstract

The gender gap in wages that is accepted as a major economic and social issue, can arise from the behaviours of individuals. The fact that the labor force participation rate of women in Turkey is quite low compared to other OECD countries is also an important problem. Women really may accept lower wages in negotiations. However, perceptions that women may accept lower offers may affect offers made by employers. This attitude of employers may cause a gender gap in wages and a low female labor force participation rate. We explore the behavioural gender differences during bargaining by using the ultimatum game. Altruism, risk aversion, generosity, and self-confidence have a significant impact on preferences and so the results of wage bargaining. The ultimatum game is an effective tool for understanding altruism, risk aversion, and generosity. We found two important results in this study. First; when the proposer knows the gender of the other party, his/her offers to women are lower than those to men. Latter; When the gender of the other party is known, female proposers bid higher than men. These results provide evidence that gender income inequality in the labor market may be due to the attitudes of employers (especially men employers). These results can actually explain why the female labor force participation rate is low in Turkey, but more detailed studies are needed on this subject. This study contributes to the literature as one of the few studies examining the wage bargaining of employers with male and female workers in Turkey.

Keywords

Gender Gap, Ultimatum Game, Behavioural Differences, Altruism, Generosity, Self-Confidence, Wage Bargaining, Wage Negotiations

References

• Abubakr Saeed, Sidra Maqsood & Amir Rafique (2019). Color matters: field experiment to explore the impact of facial complexion in Pakistani labor market, Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy, 24:3, 347-363
• Andreoni, J., & Vesterlund, L. (2001). Which is the fair sex? Gender differences in altruism. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 116(1), 293-312.
• Babcock, L., and S. Laschever. (2003). Women Don’t Ask: Negotiation and the Gender Divide. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
• Balafoutas, L., Fornwagner, H., & Sutter, M. (2018). Closing the gender gap in competitiveness through priming. Nature communications, 9(1), 1-6.
• Balafoutas, L., & Sutter, M. (2019). How uncertainty and ambiguity in tournaments affect gender differences in competitive behavior. European Economic Review, 118, 1-13.
• Bowles, H. R., & Babcock, L. (2013). How can women escape the compensation negotiation dilemma? Relational accounts are one answer. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 37(1), 80-96.
• Brañas-Garza, P., Capraro, V., & Rascon-Ramirez, E. (2018). Gender differences in altruism on Mechanical Turk: Expectations and actual behaviour. Economics Letters, 170, 19-23.
• Caliendo, M., Lee, W. S., & Mahlstedt, R. (2017). The gender wage gap and the role of reservation wages: New evidence for unemployed workers. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 136, 161-173.
• Capraro, V., & Barcelo, H. (2021). Punishing defectors and rewarding cooperators: Do people discriminate between genders?. Journal of the Economic Science Association, 1-14.
• Carpenter, J., Frank, R., & Huet-Vaughn, E. (2018). Gender differences in interpersonal and intrapersonal competitive behavior. Journal of behavioral and experimental economics, 77, 170-176.
• Castillo, M., Petrie, R., Torero, M., & Vesterlund, L. (2013). Gender diferences in bargaining outcomes: A feld experiment on discrimination. Journal of Public Economics, 99, 35–48.
• Croson, R., & Gneezy, U. (2009). Gender differences in preferences. Journal of Economic literature, 47(2), 448-74.
• Czibor, E., Onderstal, S., Sloof, R., Van Praag, M., 2014. Does relative grading help male students? evidence from a field experiment in the classroom. IZA Working Papers No.8429.
• Datta Gupta, N., Poulsen, A., & Villeval, M. C. (2013). Gender matching and competitiveness: Experimental evidence. Economic Inquiry, 51(1), 816-835.
• Deloitte (2020). Missing Pieces Report: The Board Diversity Census of Women and Minorities on Fortune 500 Boards. 6th Edition.
• Demiral, E. E., & Mollerstrom, J. (2020). The entitlement effect in the ultimatum game–does it even exist?. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 175, 341-352.
• De Paola, M., Gioia, F., & Scoppa, V. (2015). Are females scared of competing with males? Results from a field experiment. Economics of Education Review, 48, 117-128.
• D'Exelle, B., Gutekunst, C., & Riedl, A. (2020). The Effect of Gender and Gender Pairing on Bargaining: Evidence from an Artefactual Field Experiment. Available at SSRN 3740457.
• Dilek, S., & Kesgingöz, H. (2018). Sharing is Beautiful: An Application of Ultimatum Game. Business & Management Studies: An International Journal, 6(4), 822-834.
• Dilek, S. & Yıldırım, R. (2023). Migrants and The Bargaining Process in The Labor Market. Optimum Journal of Economics and Management Sciences, 10(1), 189-202
• Dittrich, M., Knabe, A., & Leipold, K. (2014). Gender differences in experimental wage negotiations. Economic Inquiry, 52(2), 862-873.
• Eckel, C. C., & Füllbrunn, S. C. (2015). Thar she blows? Gender, competition, and bubbles in experimental asset markets. American Economic Review, 105(2), 906-20.
• Eckel, C. C., & Grossman, P. J. (2001). Chivalry and solidarity in ultimatum games. Economic Inquiry, 39, 171–188
• Eckel, C. C., & Grossman, P. J. (1996). The relative price of fairness: Gender differences in a punishment game. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 30(2), 143-158.
• Flory, J. A., Gneezy, U., Leonard, K. L., & List, J. A. (2018). Gender, age, and competition: A disappearing gap?. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 150, 256-276.
• García-Gallego, A., Georgantzís, N., & Jaramillo-Gutiérrez, A. (2012). Gender differences in ultimatum games: Despite rather than due to risk attitudes. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 83(1), 42-49.
• Georgantzís, N., Parasyri, D. & Tsagarakis, K. (2017). Inter-gender interaction and communication in ultimatum games, Applied Economics Letters, 24:12, 858-862.
• Gneezy U ve Rustichini A (2004). Gender and Competition at a Young Age. American Economic Review, 94 (2): 377-381
• Güth, W., Schmittberger, R. & Schwarze, B., (1982). An Experimental Analysis of Ultimatum Bargaining, Journal of economic behavior ＆ organization, 1982, 3, 367–388
• Güth, W., & Kocher, M. G. (2014). More than 30 years of ultimatum bargaining experiments: Motives, variations, and a survey of the recent literature. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 108, 396–409
• John, J. P. (2017). Gender differences and the effect of facing harder competition. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 143, 201-222.
• Hatipoğlu, Y.Z. (2021). Metodolojik Bireye Bir Eleştiri; Özgecilik Kavramı ve Ultimatom Oyunu Uygulaması. İnsan ve Toplum, 11(3). 1-40.
• Heinz, M., Juranek, S., & Rau, H. A. (2012). Do women behave more reciprocally than men? Gender differences in real effort dictator games. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 83(1), 105-110.
• Hernandez-Arenaz, I., & Iriberri, N. (2018). Women ask for less (only from men): Evidence from bargaining in the field. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 152, 192-214.
• Huang, J., & Low, C. (2018). The myth of the male negotiator: Gender’s effect on negotiation strategies and outcomes. Technical Report, University of Pennsylvania.
• Jung, S., & Vranceanu, R. (2019). Willingness to compete: Between‐and within‐gender comparisons. Managerial and Decision Economics, 40(3), 321-335.
• Kamilçelebi, H. (2019). Davranışsal İktisat. Ijopec.
• Kırış, Ş., & Dilek, S. (2021). Müslüman Dindarlık Tipolojileri ile Diğerkâmlık Arası İlişkilerin İncelemesi: Ültimatom ve Diktatör Oyunu Uygulaması. İnsan ve Toplum Bilimleri Araştırmaları Dergisi, 10(2), 1470-1492.
• Kulik, C. T., & Olekalns, M. (2012). Negotiating the gender divide: Lessons from the negotiation and organizational behavior literatures. Journal of Management, 38(4), 1387-1415.
• Li, S., Qin, X., & Houser, D. (2018). Revisiting Gender Differences in Ultimatum Bargaining: Experimental Evidence From the US and China. Journal of the Economic Science Association, 4(2), 180-190.
• Luo, X., Zhang, B. & Chen, F. (2018). The Review of Experiments On The Ultimatum Game Under Competitive Conditions. Advances In Social Science, Education and Humanities Research (ASSEHR), 182, 230-234.
• Malik, S., Mihm, B., Mihm, M., & Timme, F. (2021). Gender differences in bargaining with asymmetric information. Journal of Economic Psychology, 86, 102415.
• Masclet, D., Peterle, E., & Larribeau, S. (2015). Gender differences in tournament and flat-wage schemes: An experimental study. Journal of Economic Psychology, 47, 103-115.
• Koopmans, R., Veit, S. & Ruta Yemane (2019). Taste or statistics? A Correspondence Study of Ethnic, Racial and Religious Labour Market Discrimination in Germany, Ethnic and Racial Studies, 42:16, 233-2
• Niederle, M., & Vesterlund, L. (2007). Do women shy away from competition? Do men compete too much?. The quarterly journal of economics, 122(3), 1067-1101.
• Niederle, M., & Vesterlund, L. (2011). Gender and competition. Annu. Rev. Econ., 3(1), 601-630.
• OECD (2021). https://data.oecd.org/earnwage/gender-wage-gap.htm date:07.09.2021
• OECD (2021b). https://data.oecd.org/eduatt/population-with-tertiary-education.htm date:11.09.2021
• Öneş, U. (2019). Davranışsal İktisat Deneylerinde Toplumsal Cinsiyet Temelli Farklar. Mülkiye Dergisi, 43 (2), 411-434.
• Reuben, E., Wiswall, M., & Zafar, B. (2017). Preferences and biases in educational choices and labour market expectations: Shrinking the black box of gender. The Economic Journal, 127(604), 2153-2186.
• Schier, U. K. (2020). Female and male role models and competitiveness. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 173, 55-67.
• Shan, W., Keller, J., & Joseph, D. (2019). Are men better negotiators everywhere? A meta‐analysis of how gender differences in negotiation performance vary across cultures. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 40(6), 651-675.
• Solnick, S. J. (2001). Gender Differences in The Ultimatum Game. Economic Inquiry, 39(2), 189.
• Sutter, M., Bosman, R., Kocher, M. G., & van Winden, F. (2009). Gender pairing and bargaining—Beware the same sex!. Experimental Economics, 12(3), 318-331.
• World Economic Forum (2021). Global Gender Gap Report 2021. http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2021.pdf (date:25.06.2021)
• Worldbank Data (2020). data.worldbank.org (date:08.09.2021).
• Youssef, F. F., Bachew, R., Bissessar, S., Crockett, M. J., & Faber, N. S. (2018). Sex differences in the effects of acute stress on behavior in the ultimatum game. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 96, 126-131.
• Wu, Y., Gao, L., Wan, Y., Wang, F., Xu, S., Yang, Z., ... & Pan, Y. (2018). Effects of facial trustworthiness and gender on decision making in the Ultimatum Game. Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal, 46(3), 499-516.
• Wu, Y., Gao, L., Wan, Y., Wang, F., Xu, S., Yang, Z., ... & Pan, Y. (2018). Effects of facial trustworthiness and gender on decision making in the Ultimatum Game. Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal, 46(3), 499-516.