Intellectual Property and Regional Growth in Türkiye: A Spatial Analysis of Education, Trade, and Population Dynamics

Year 2026, Volume: 13 Issue: 1 , 81 - 108 , 19.02.2026

Abdullah Bahadır Şaşmaz

https://doi.org/10.26650/JEPR1642181

https://izlik.org/JA97GU59YG

Abstract

This research investigates the determinants of regional economic growth in Türkiye between 2008 and 2023, focusing on GDP persistence, population density, trade openness, education, and intellectual property rights (IPRs), particularly patent, utility model, trademark, and industrial design registrations. Spatial panel data analysis with spatial autoregressive model (SAR), spatial durbin model (SDM), and spatial error model (SEM) is applied to 81 cities at the NUTS-III level, providing a comprehensive perspective on regional dynamics. The findings confirm statistically significant spatial autocorrelation, indicating that neighboring cities influence each other’s economic performance. GDP persistence and population density positively affect growth, while tertiary education negatively correlates with GDP. Trade openness is not statistically significant. Design and utility model registrations contribute positively to growth, whereas patents and trademarks show negative effects, highlighting the need for policy alignment with regional economic structures.

Keywords

Intellectual Property Rights , Regional Economic Growth , Education and Human Capital , Spatial Panel Data Analysis , Trade Openness

References

• Abay, M., Akgüngör, S., & Akyıldız, Y. T. (2021). Innovation, relatedness and complexity in Turkey: A regional analysis for 1978-2017. Ekonomi-tek, 10(3), 135-171. google scholar
• Acemoglu, D., & Linn, J. (2004). Market size in innovation: Theory and evidence from the pharmaceutical industry. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 119(3), 1049-1090. [https://doi.org/10.1162/0033553041502144](https://doi.org/10.1162/0033553041502144) google scholar
• Acemoglu, D., & Restrepo, P. (2018). Artificial intelligence, automation, and work. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 33(2), 193-210. [http://www.nber.org/chapters/c14027](http://www.nber.org/chapters/c14027) google scholar
• Acemoglu, D., & Zilibotti, F. (2001). Productivity differences. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 116(2), 563-606. [https://doi.org/10.1162/00335530151144104](https://doi.org/10.1162/00335530151144104) google scholar
• Aghion, P., & Howitt, P. (1992). A model of growth through creative destruction. Econometrica, 60(2), 323-351. [https://doi.org/10.2307/2951599](https://doi.org/10.2307/2951599) google scholar
• Aghion, P., Akcigit, U., & Howitt, P. (2015). Lessons from Schumpeterian growth theory. American Economic Review, 105(5), 94-99. [https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.p20151067](https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.p20151067) google scholar
• Aghion, P., Jones, B. F., & Jones, C. I. (2019). Artificial intelligence and economic growth. In A. Agrawal, J. Gans, & A. Goldfarb (Eds.), The economics of artificial intelligence (pp. 237-282). University of Chicago Press. [https://doi.org/10.7208/9780226613475-011](https://doi.org/10.7208/9780226613475-011) google scholar
• Anselin, L. (1988). Spatial econometrics: Methods and models. Springer. google scholar
• Arrow, K. J. (1962). Economic welfare and the allocation of resources for invention. In R. R. Nelson (Ed.), The rate and direction of inventive activity (pp. 609-626). Princeton University Press. google scholar
• Bain, J. S. (1956). Barriers to new competition: Their character and consequences in manufacturing industries. Harvard University Press. google scholar
• Baumol, W. J. (1982). Applied fairness theory and rationing policy. The American Economic Review, 72(4), 639-651. [suspicious link removed] google scholar
• Bayarçelik, E. B., & Taşel, F. (2012). Research and development: Source of economic growth. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 58, 744-753. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.09.1052](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.09.1052) google scholar
• Beebe, B., & Fromer, J. C. (2017). Are We Running Out of Trademarks: An Empirical Study of Trademark Depletion and Congestion. Harv. L. Rev., 131, 945. google scholar
• Bidirici, M., & Bohur, E. (2015). Design and economic growth: Panel cointegration and causality analysis. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 210, 193-202. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.11.359](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.11.359) google scholar
• Bielig, A. (2015). Intellectual property and economic development in Germany (1999–2009). Springer. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s10657-012-9324-5](https://doi.org/10.1007/s10657-012-9324-5) google scholar
• Bloom, D. E., Canning, D., Chan, K., & Luca, D. L. (2014). Higher education and economic growth in Africa. International Journal of African Higher Education, 1(1). [https://doi.org/10.6017/ijahe.v1i1.5643](https://doi.org/10.6017/ijahe.v1i1.5643) google scholar
• Bloom, N., Schankerman, M., & Van Reenen, J. (2013). Identifying technology spillovers and product market rivalry. Econometrica, 81(4), 1347-1393. [https://doi.org/10.3982/ECTA9466](https://doi.org/10.3982/ECTA9466) google scholar
• Bozkaya, Ş.; Şen Küçük, G. & Aksel, E. (2020). “Ticari marka başvurularının ekonomik büyüme üzerine etkisi”, International Journal of Disciplines Economics & Administrative Scienves Studies, Vol:6, Issue:24; pp:841-849 [http://dx.doi.org/10.26728/ideas.346](http://dx.doi.org/10.26728/ideas.346) google scholar
• Bulus, G. C., & Bakirtas, I. (2021). Patent, utility model, and economic growth. Innovation, Catch-up and Sustainable Development: A Schumpeterian Perspective, 309-335. [https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-84931-3\_13](https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-84931-3_13) google scholar
• Chamberlin, E. H. (1933). The theory of monopolistic competition. Harvard University Press. google scholar
• Chatterji, M. (1998). Tertiary education and economic growth. Regional Studies, 32(4), 349-354. [https://doi.org/10.1080/00343409850117807](https://doi.org/10.1080/00343409850117807) google scholar
• Cliff, A. D., & Ord, J. K. (1973). Spatial autocorrelation. Pion. google scholar
• Cliff, A. D., & Ord, J. K. (1981). Spatial processes: Models & applications. Pion. google scholar
• Cournot, A. (1838). Recherches sur les principes mathématiques de la théorie des richesses. L. Hachette. google scholar
• Dağlı, İ., & Ezanoğlu, Z. (2021). Ar-Ge, patent ve ileri teknoloji ihracatının ekonomik büyümeye etkileri: OECD ülkeleri için dinamik panel veri analizi. İnsan ve Toplum Bilimleri Araştırmaları Dergisi, 10(1), 438-460. [https://doi.org/10.15869/itobiad.780229](https://doi.org/10.15869/itobiad.780229) google scholar
• Dereli, D. D. (2019). The relationship between high-technology exports, patent and economic growth in Turkey (1990-2015). Journal of Business Economics and Finance, 8(3), 173-180. [https://doi.org/10.17261/Pressacademia.2019.1124](https://doi.org/10.17261/Pressacademia.2019.1124) google scholar
• Devarhubli, G. (2022). Patents, Trademarks, and Copyrights: Protecting Creative Assets. Inkbound Publishers. google scholar
• Dinopoulos, E., & Segerstrom, P. (2010). Intellectual property rights, multinational firms and economic growth. Journal of Development Economics, 92(1), 13-27. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2009.01.007](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2009.01.007) google scholar
• Duman, E. (2017). Türkiye’de reel GSYH, AR-GE harcamaları ve ekonomik çıktılar arasındaki ilişkinin incelenmesi. International Journal of Academic Value Studies, 3(14), 12-21. [http://dx.doi.org/10.23929/javs.525](http://dx.doi.org/10.23929/javs.525) google scholar
• Durmuşkaya, S., & Ersoy, A. Y. (2016). Effect of the rights of intellectual property on the export revenues. Fikri mülkiyet haklarının ihracat gelirleri üzerindeki etkisi. Journal of Human Sciences, 13(1), 798-808. google scholar
• Encaoua, D., Guellec, D., & Martínez, C. (2006). Patent systems for encouraging innovation: Lessons from economic analysis. Research Policy, 35(9), 1423-1438. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2006.07.004](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2006.07.004) google scholar
• Ezenwakwelu, G. C., Chizoba, O. O., & Chukwuma, E. (2024). Innovation and economic growth in Nigeria (2013-2022). Madonna Journal of Administration and Management Sciences (MJAMS), 1(1&2), 1-19. google scholar
• Griliches, Z. (1979). Issues in assessing the contribution of research and development to productivity growth. The Bell Journal of Economics, 10(1), 92-116. [https://doi.org/10.2307/3003321](https://doi.org/10.2307/3003321) google scholar
• Gu, J. (2023). Commercialization of academic patents in Chinese universities: Antecedents and spatial spillovers. Heliyon, 9(3). [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e14601](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e14601) google scholar
• Gülmez, A., & Akpolat, A. G. (2014). AR-GE, inovasyon ve ekonomik büyüme: Türkiye ve AB örneği için dinamik panel veri analizi. Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi. google scholar
• Hasdoğan, G. (2009). The institutionalization of the industrial design profession in Turkey: Case study—the Industrial Designers Society of Turkey. The Design Journal, 12(3), 297-319. [https://doi.org/10.2752/146069209X12530928086360](https://doi.org/10.2752/146069209X12530928086360) google scholar
• Hausman, J. A. (1978). Specification tests in econometrics. Econometrica: Journal of the econometric society, 1251-1271. [https://doi.org/10.2307/1913827](https://doi.org/10.2307/1913827) google scholar
• Heikkilä, J. (2019). IPR gender gaps: A first look at utility model, design right, and trademark filings. Scientometrics, 120(2), 789-814. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-018-2979-0](https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-018-2979-0) google scholar
• Industrial Property Law No. 6769. (2017). Official Gazette of the Republic of Türkiye, No. 29944. Retrieved from [https://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2017/01/20170110-9.htm](https://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2017/01/20170110-9.htm) google scholar
• Işık, C. (2014). Patent harcamaları ve iktisadi büyüme arasındaki ilişki: Türkiye örneği. Sosyoekonomi, 21(21). [https://doi.org/10.17233/se.58047](https://doi.org/10.17233/se.58047) google scholar
• Ivus, O. (2010). Do stronger patent rights raise high-tech exports to the developing world?. Journal of International Economics, 81(1), 38-47. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinteco.2009.12.002](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinteco.2009.12.002) google scholar
• Jaffe, A. B. (1986). Technological opportunity and spillovers of R\&D: Evidence from firms’ patents, profits and market value. American Economic Review, 76(5), 984-1001. [https://doi.org/10.3386/w1815](https://doi.org/10.3386/w1815) google scholar
• Jalil, A., & Rauf, A. (2021). Revisiting the link between trade openness and economic growth using panel methods. The Journal of International Trade & Economic Development, 30(8), 1168-1187. [https://doi.org/10.1080/00343409850117807](https://doi.org/10.1080/00343409850117807) google scholar
• Jones, C. I. (1995). R\&D-based models of economic growth. Journal of Political Economy, 103(4), 759-784. google scholar
• Khan, I., Zhong, R., Khan, H., & Nuţă, F. M. (2024). The effect of technological innovation, trademark application, economic growth, and CO2 emissions on renewable energy consumption in Asian Belt and Road initiative countries. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 1-22. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-024-04887-w](https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-024-04887-w) google scholar
• Kim, Y. K., Lee, K., Park, W. G., & Choo, K. (2012). Appropriate intellectual property protection and economic growth in countries at different levels of development. Research policy, 41(2), 358-375. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2011.09.003](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2011.09.003) google scholar
• Köse, Z., & Şentürk, M. (2017). AR-GE Patent Harcamaları ve Teknolojik İlerlemenin Ekonomik Büyüme Üzerindeki Etkisi: Ampirik Bir Uygulama. Akademik Araştırmalar Ve Çalışmalar Dergisi (Akad), 9(17), 215-221. google scholar
• Kwan, Y. K., & Lai, E. L. C. (2003). Intellectual property rights protection and endogenous economic growth. Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control, 27(5), 853-873. [https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-1889(02)00018-0](https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-1889\(02\)00018-0) google scholar
• Lee, L. F., & Yu, J. (2010). A spatial dynamic panel data model with both time and individual fixed effects. Econometric Theory, 26(2), 564–597. [https://doi.org/10.1017/S0266466609100099](https://doi.org/10.1017/S0266466609100099) google scholar
• Lee, L. F., & Yu, J. (2010a). Estimation of spatial autoregressive panel data models with fixed effects. Journal of Econometrics, 154(2), 165-185. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconom.2009.08.001](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconom.2009.08.001) google scholar
• Lee, L. F., & Yu, J. (2010b). A spatial dynamic panel data model with both time and individual fixed effects. Econometric Theory, 564-597. [https://doi.org/10.1017/S0266466609100099](https://doi.org/10.1017/S0266466609100099) google scholar
• LeSage, J. P. (2014). Spatial econometric panel data model specification: A Bayesian approach. Spatial Statistics, 9, 122–145. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spasta.2014.02.002](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spasta.2014.02.002) google scholar
• LeSage, J. P., & Pace, R. K. (2009). Introduction to spatial econometrics. CRC Press. google scholar
• Maneejuk, P., & Yamaka, W. (2021). The impact of higher education on economic growth in ASEAN-5 countries. Sustainability, 13(2), 520. [https://doi.org/10.3390/su13020520](https://doi.org/10.3390/su13020520) google scholar
• Marshall, A. (1890). Principles of economics. Macmillan. google scholar
• Maskus, K. E. (2019). Economic development and intellectual property rights: Key analytical results from economics. Elgar Online. [https://doi.org/10.4337/9781789903997.00033](https://doi.org/10.4337/9781789903997.00033) google scholar
• Monseau, S. (2011). The challenge of protecting industrial design in a global economy. Tex. Intell. Prop. LJ, 20, 495. google scholar
• Moser, P. (2013). Patents and innovation: Evidence from economic history. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 27(1), 23-44. [https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.27.1.23](https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.27.1.23) google scholar
• Motta, M. (2004). Competition policy: Theory and practice. Cambridge University Press. google scholar
• Nedić, V., Turanjanin, D., & Cvetanović, S. (2020). Empirical investigation of the impact of tertiary education on the economic growth of the European Union countries. Economic Analysis, 53(1), 163-178. google scholar
• Nguyen, M.-L. T., & Bui, T. N. (2021). Trade openness and economic growth: a study on asean-6. Economies, 9(3), 113. [https://doi.org/10.3390/economies9030113](https://doi.org/10.3390/economies9030113) google scholar
• Onuklu, A., Darendeli, I., & Mudambi, R. (2021). Regulative distance, international connectivity and innovation systems: Turkey’s links to the EU. Competitiveness Review: An International Business Journal, 31(2), 231-249. [https://doi.org/10.1108/CR-04-2020-0051](https://doi.org/10.1108/CR-04-2020-0051) google scholar
• Ökten, N. Z., Okan, E. Y., Arslan, Ü., & Güngör, M. Ö. (2019). The effect of brand value on economic growth: A multinational analysis. European research on management and business economics, 25(1), 1-7. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iedeen.2018.11.002](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iedeen.2018.11.002) google scholar
• Özcan, S. E., & Özer, P. (2017). AR-GE harcamaları ve patent başvuru sayısının ekonomik bü yü me üzerindeki etkileri: OECD ülkeleri üzerine bir uygulama. Anadolu Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 18(1), 15-28. [https://doi.org/10.18037/ausbd.550617](https://doi.org/10.18037/ausbd.550617) google scholar
• Park, W. G., & Lippoldt, D. C. (2008). Technology transfer and the economic implications of the strengthening of intellectual property rights in developing countries. OECD Trade Policy Papers, No. 62. google scholar
• Preoteasa, I., Giugea, N., & Maracineanu, C. (2017). International brand protection. Annals of the University of Craiova-Agriculture, Montanology, Cadastre Series, 47(1), 219-226. google scholar
• Prud’homme, D. (2017). Utility model patent regime “strength” and technological development: Experiences of China and other East Asian latecomers. China Economic Review, 46, 45-60. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chieco.2016.11.007](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chieco.2016.11.007) google scholar
• Qayyum, M., Yu, Y., Tu, T., Nizamani, M. M., Ahmad, A., & Ali, M. (2022). Relationship between economic liberalization and intellectual property protection with regional innovation in China. A case study of Chinese provinces. Plos one, 17(1). [http://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0259170](http://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0259170) google scholar
• Raghutla, C. (2020). The effect of trade openness on economic growth: Some empirical evidence from emerging market economies. Journal of Public Affairs, 20(3). [https://doi.org/10.1002/pa.2081](https://doi.org/10.1002/pa.2081) google scholar
• Rahman, M. M., Saidi, K., & Mbarek, M. B. (2020). Economic growth in South Asia: the role of CO2 emissions, population density and trade openness. Heliyon, 6(5). google scholar
• Ramos, V. J. R., & Daway-Ducanes, S. L. S. (2024). Nonlinearities in the intellectual property-manufacturing growth nexus in the post-TRIPS era: Evidence from a dynamic panel analysis. Journal of the Knowledge Economy. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s13132-024-02235-x](https://doi.org/10.1007/s13132-024-02235-x) google scholar
• Republic of Türkiye Ministry of National Defence (2024, November 15). Province and district area measurements. Directorate General for Mapping. [https://www.harita.gov.tr/il-ve-ilce-yuzolcumleri](https://www.harita.gov.tr/il-ve-ilce-yuzolcumleri) google scholar
• Robinson, J. (1933). The economics of imperfect competition. Macmillan. google scholar
• Romer, P. M. (1986). Increasing returns and long-run growth. Journal of Political Economy, 94(5), 1002-1037. [https://doi.org/10.1086/261420](https://doi.org/10.1086/261420) google scholar
• Romer, P. M. (1990). Endogenous technological change. Journal of Political Economy, 98(5, Part 2), 71-102. [https://doi.org/10.1086/261725](https://doi.org/10.1086/261725) google scholar
• Schartinger, D. (2023). Why firms do (not) use design rights to protect innovation: A literature review. World Patent Information, 73, 102175. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wpi.2023.102175](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wpi.2023.102175) google scholar
• Schautschick, P., & Greenhalgh, C. (2016). Empirical studies of trade marks: The existing economic literature. Economics of Innovation and New Technology, 25(4), 353-380. [https://doi.org/10.1080/10438599.2015.1064598](https://doi.org/10.1080/10438599.2015.1064598) google scholar
• Schumpeter, J. A. (1934). The theory of economic development. Harvard University Press. google scholar
• Schumpeter, J. A. (1942). Capitalism, socialism, and democracy. Harper & Brothers. google scholar
• Shaikh, S. M., Patnaik, D., & Fernandes, M. J. (2024). Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) and Its Effect on the Flow of Cross-Border Mergers and Acquisitions (M\&As). [https://doi.org/10.37394/23207.2024.21.106](https://doi.org/10.37394/23207.2024.21.106) google scholar
• Soejoto, A., Ghofur, M. A., & Rachmawati, L. (2022). The effect of population density, educational access ınequality and health access ınequality on economic growth. AL-ISHLAH: Jurnal Pendidikan, 14(3), 4011-4022. [https://doi.org/10.35445/alishlah.v14i3.1674](https://doi.org/10.35445/alishlah.v14i3.1674) google scholar
• Solow, R. M. (1956). A contribution to the theory of economic growth. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 70(1), 65-94. [https://doi.org/10.2307/1884513](https://doi.org/10.2307/1884513) google scholar
• Stigler, G. J. (1964). A theory of oligopoly. Journal of Political Economy, 72(1), 44-61. [https://doi.org/10.1086/258853](https://doi.org/10.1086/258853) google scholar
• Suluk, C. (2012). A comparative law perspective of industrial designs in Turkey. IIC-International Review of Intellectual Property and Competition Law. google scholar
• Sungur, O., Aydın, H. İ., & Eren, M. V. (2016). The relationship among R\&D, innovation, export and economic growth in Turkey: Asymmetric causality analyis. Suleyman Demirel University The Journal of Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, 21(1), 173-192. google scholar
• Suthersanen, U. (2006). Utility models and innovation in developing countries. IPR Online Report. google scholar
• Şaşmaz, A. B. (2024a). Tü rkiye’nin yatay ve dikey endü stri içi ticaretinin teknoloji sınıflandırması çerçevesinde analizi. Ömer Halisdemir Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 17(2), 272-304. [https://doi.org/10.25287/ohuiibf.1403052](https://doi.org/10.25287/ohuiibf.1403052) google scholar
• Şaşmaz, A. B. (2024b). Türkiye-OECD ülkeleri arasındaki imalat sanayisi yatay ve dikey endüstri içi ticaretinin belirleyicileri. Marmara Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi, 46(2), 492-517. [https://doi.org/10.14780/muiibd.1403080](https://doi.org/10.14780/muiibd.1403080) google scholar
• Şaşmaz, A. B. (2025) Regional income inequality and trade openness in Türkiye: A spatial econometric analysis. Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 27(Özel Sayı), 20-34. google scholar
• Tang, T. C., & Lai, S. L. (2022). Government spending on tertiary education, knowledge, technology, and economic growth. Journal of Economic Development, 47(4), 99-122. google scholar
• Tirole, J. (1988). The theory of industrial organization. MIT Press. google scholar
• Turkish Patent Institute (2024, November 15). Official Statistics. [https://www.turkpatent.gov.tr/istatistikler](https://www.turkpatent.gov.tr/istatistikler) google scholar
• Turkstat (2024, November 15). Data portal for statistics. [https://data.tuik.gov.tr/](https://data.tuik.gov.tr/) google scholar
• Ulaşan, B. (2012). Openness to international trade and economic growth: a cross-country empirical investigation (No. 2012-25). Economics Discussion Papers. [https://hdl.handle.net/10419/58224](https://hdl.handle.net/10419/58224) google scholar
• Yanikkaya, H. (2003). Trade openness and economic growth: a cross-country empirical investigation. Journal of Development economics, 72(1), 57-89. [https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3878(03)00068-3](https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3878\(03\)00068-3) google scholar
• Yıldız, G. (2018). Teknolojik inovasyonun ekonomik büyüme üzerindeki etkisi: Türkiye-AB (15) ülkeleri örneği. Uluslararası İktisadi ve İdari İncelemeler Dergisi, 41-58. google scholar
• Yoshioka-Kobayashi, T., Fujimoto, T., & Akiike, A. (2018). The validity of industrial design registrations and design patents as a measurement of "good" product design: A comparative empirical analysis. World Patent Information, 54, 1-12. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wpi.2018.04.001](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wpi.2018.04.001) google scholar
• Yu, C., & Shen, B. (2024). Intellectual property policy and county economic growth: A quasi‐natural experiment from the intellectual property powering county project. China & World Economy, 32(6), 35-67. [https://doi.org/10.1111/cwe.12557](https://doi.org/10.1111/cwe.12557) google scholar
• Yu, J., De Jong, R., & Lee, L. F. (2008). Quasi-maximum likelihood estimators for spatial dynamic panel data with fixed effects when both n and T are large. Journal of Econometrics, 146(1), 118-134. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconom.2008.08.002](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconom.2008.08.002) google scholar