Understanding the Mental Health Implications of Emotion Regulation: A Journey Through Authenticity

Abstract

People utilize specific emotion regulation (ER) strategies to exert control over their emotions. Some of those strategies are beneficial for psychological well-being, whereas others are detrimental to it. Identifying the working mechanisms of ER can be helpful to better understand its mental health implications. Particular ER strategies which interfere with one's natural emotional responses might lead people to conclude that they are not performing their authentic selves. However, other ER strategies can be useful in keeping one’s authenticity intact. Given its importance for psychological well-being as well, the current study examined authenticity as a mediatory mechanism in explaining the link between the habitual use of certain ER strategies and negative psychological symptoms. Participants were 391 university students (294 females) with a mean age of 21.5 (SD = 2.22). Reappraisal, suppression, and enhancing positive affect among ER strategies were included as predictor variables into the tested path model. Psychological ill-being was tested as the outcome variable, and it was computed on the basis of the participants’ positive affect (reverse-coded), negative affect, depression, and stress levels. Trait authenticity was included as the mediator variable. The proposed model revealed a good fit to data, and the results suggested full support for the study predictions. Reappraisal negatively predicted psychological ill-being by leading to an increase in the authenticity levels. However, suppression intensified the negative psychological symptoms by lessening authenticity. Moreover, enhancing positive affect diminished psychological ill-being by fostering authenticity. Additionally, the mediating roles of specific authenticity dimensions were tested within the same model. Accordingly, 2 components of authenticity (i.e., self-awareness and autonomous behavior) mediated the relationship between ER and mental health. In the light of the present findings, it can be said that various ER strategies, which lead people to behave in accordance with their true selves, are protective in terms of psychological health. Further implications, limitations, and suggestions for future studies were discussed.

Keywords

• Emotion regulation
• reappraisal
• suppression
• enhancing positive affect
• authenticity
• psychological health

Duygu Düzenlenmenin Psikolojik Sağlık Üzerindeki Etkilerini Anlamak: Özgünlüğün Aracı Rolü

Abstract

İnsanlar duygularını kontrol etmek amacıyla çeşitli duygu düzenleme (DD) stratejilerinden yararlanırlar. Bu stratejilerden bazıları psikolojik iyi oluşu olumlu yönde etkilerken diğerleri olumsuz yönde etkileyebilmektedir. DD’nin işleyiş mekanizmalarının tespit edilmesi, duygu düzenlemenin psikolojik sağlık üzerindeki etkilerinin daha iyi bir şekilde anlaşılmasına yardımcı olabilir. Doğal duygusal tepkilerin değiştirilmesine dayalı olan kimi DD stratejileri bireylerin gerçekte oldukları kişi gibi davranmadıkları sonucuna varmalarına sebep olabilir. Ancak diğer DD stratejilerinden bazıları bireylerin özgünlüklerini muhafaza etmelerine yardımcı olabilir. Psikolojik iyi oluş açısından da önemi göz önünde bulundurularak mevcut çalışmada özgünlük değişkeni, belli DD stratejilerinin kullanımı ile olumsuz psikolojik belirtiler arasındaki ilişkiyi açıklamada işlevsel olabilecek bir aracı değişken olarak sınanmıştır. Çalışmanın katılımcıları yaş ortalaması 21.5 (SS = 2.22) olan 391 (294’ü kadın) üniversite öğrencisidir. DD stratejilerinden yeniden değerlendirme, bastırma ve olumlu duygulanımı arttırma test edilen yol modeline yordayıcı değişkenler olarak dahil edilmiştir. Psikolojik rahatsızlık ilgili modelde sonuç değişken olarak incelenmiştir. Bu değişkene ait değer olumlu duygulanım (ters kodlanmış), olumsuz duygulanım, depresyon ve stres ölçümlerinden elde edilen puanlar toplanarak hesaplanmıştır. Özgünlük ise aracı değişken olarak ele alınmıştır. İstatistiki analizler sonucunda, önerilen yol modelinin kabul edilebilir uyum değerlerine sahip olduğu saptanmış ve bulguların çalışma hipotezlerinin tamamına destek sağladığı görülmüştür. Yeniden değerlendirme stratejisi özgünlüğü pekiştirerek psikolojik rahatsızlığı negatif yönde yordamıştır. Bastırma stratejisi ise özgünlüğü azaltarak olumsuz psikolojik çıktıları pozitif yönde yordamıştır. Bunun yanı sıra, olumlu duygulanımı arttırma stratejisi özgünlük değişkeni üzerinde bir artışı tetikleyerek psikolojik rahatsızlığı negatif yönde yordamıştır. Ayrıca aynı model çerçevesinde belirli özgünlük boyutlarının aracı rolü de irdelenmiştir. Buna göre özgünlüğün iki boyutunun (öz-farkındalık ve özerk davranış) DD ve psikolojik sağlık arasındaki ilişkiye aracılık ettiği görülmüştür. Mevcut bulgular ışığında, insanları gerçekte oldukları kişi gibi davranmaya yönelten çeşitli DD stratejilerinin psikolojik sağlık açısından koruyucu olduğu söylenebilir. Bulgulara ilişkin diğer çıkarımlar, çalışmanın kısıtlılıkları ve gelecek çalışmalar için öneriler tartışılmıştır.

Keywords

• Duygu düzenleme
• yeniden değerlendirme
• bastırma
• olumlu duygulanımı arttırma
• özgünlük
• psikolojik sağlık

References

1. Allan, B. A., Bott, E. M., & Suh, H. (2015). Connecting mindfulness and meaning in life: Exploring the role of authenticity. Mindfulness, 6(5), 996–1003. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-014-0341-z
2. Anderson, C. L., Chen, S., & Ayduk, Ö. (2019). When does changing emotions harm authenticity? Distinct reappraisal strategies differentially impact subjective and observer-rated authenticity. Self and Identity. Advanced online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2019.1645041
3. Arndt, J. E., Hoglund, W. L., & Fujiwara, E. (2013). Desirable responding mediates the relationship between emotion regulation and anxiety. Personality and Individual Differences, 55(2), 147–151. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2013.02.022
4. Aydoğan, D., Özbay, Y., & Büyüköztürk, Ş. (2017). Özgünlük Ölçeği’nin uyarlanması ve özgünlük ile mutluluk arasındaki ilişkide maneviyatın aracı rolü [Adaptation of the Authentcity Scale and the mediator role of spirituality in the relationship between authenticity and happiness]. Journal of Happiness Studies, 5(1), 38–59.
5. Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173–1182. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.51.6.1173
6. Brotheridge, C. M., & Lee, R. T. (2002). Testing a conservation of resources model of the dynamics of emotional labor. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 7(1), 57–67. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.7.1.57
7. Brunell, A. B., Kernis, M. H., Goldman, B. M., Heppner, W., Davis, P., Cascio, E. V., & Webster, G. D. (2010). Dispositional authenticity and romantic relationship functioning. Personality and Individual Differences, 48(8), 900–905. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.02.018
8. Bryant, F. B. (1989). A four-factor model of perceived control: Avoiding, coping, obtaining, and savoring. Journal of Personality, 57(4), 773–797. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1989.tb00494.x

9. yrne, B. M. (2006). Structural equation modeling with EQS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming (2nd Ed.). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
10. Cai, W. P., Pan, Y., Zhang, S. M., Wei, C., Dong, W., & Deng, G. H. (2017). Relationship between cognitive emotion regulation, social support, resilience and acute stress responses in Chinese soldiers: Exploring multiple mediation model. Psychiatry Research, 256, 71–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2017.06.018
11. Cloninger, S. C. (1993). Theories of personality: Understanding persons. Englewood CliVs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
12. Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24(4), 385–396. https://doi.org/10.2307/2136404
13. Cole, D. A., & Preacher, K. J. (2014). Manifest variable path analysis: Potentially serious and misleading consequences due to uncorrected measurement error. Psychological Methods, 19(2), 300–315. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033805
14. Cooper, A. B., Sherman, R. A., Rauthmann, J. F., Serfass, D. G., & Brown, N. A. (2018). Feeling good and authentic: Experienced authenticity in daily life is predicted by positive feelings and situation characteristics, not trait-state consistency. Journal of Research in Personality, 77, 57–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2018.09.005
15. Costa-Ramalho, S., Marques-Pinto, A., Ribeiro, M. T., & Pereira, C. R. (2015). Savoring positive events in couple life: Impacts on relationship quality and dyadic adjustment. Family Science, 6(1), 170–180. https://doi.org/10.1080/19424620.2015.1082047
16. Datu, J. A. D., & Reyes, J. A. S. (2015). The dark side of possessing power: Power reduces happiness in a collectivist context. Social Indicators Research, 124(3), 981–991. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-014-0813-5
17. De Castella, K., Goldin, P., Jazaieri, H., Ziv, M., Dweck, C. S., & Gross, J. J. (2013). Beliefs about emotion: Links to emotion regulation, well-being, and psychological distress. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 35(6), 497–505. https://doi.org/10.1080/01973533.2013.840632
18. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01
19. Eker, D., & Arkar, H. (1995). Çok boyutlu algılanan sosyal destek ölçeğinin faktör yapısı, geçerlilik ve güvenilirliği [Factorial structure, validity, and reliability of revised form of the multidimensional scale of perceived social support]. Türk Psikoloji Dergisi, 10(34), 45–55.
20. Eldeleklioğlu, J., & Eroğlu, Y. (2015). A Turkish adaptation of the emotion regulation questionnaire. Journal of Human Sciences, 12(1), 1157–1168. https://doi.org/10.14687/ijhs.v12i1.3144
21. Elliott, J. C. (2010). Humility: Development and analysis of a scale (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Tennessee, Knoxville.
22. English, T., & John, O. P. (2013). Understanding the social effects of emotion regulation: The mediating role of authenticity for individual differences in suppression. Emotion, 13(2), 314−329. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029847
23. Eskin, M., Harlak, H., Demirkıran, F., & Dereboy, Ç. (2013). Algılanan Stres Ölçeği’nin Türkçeye uyarlanması: Güvenirlik ve geçerlik analizi [The adaptation of the Perceived Stress Scale into Turkish: A reliability and validity analysis]. New Symposium Journal, 51(3), 132–140.
24. Field, A. (2018). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications Inc.
25. Ford, B. Q., & Troy, A. S. (2019). Reappraisal reconsidered: A closer look at the costs of an acclaimed emotion-regulation strategy. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 28, 195–203. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721419827526
26. Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56(3), 218–226. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218
27. Fredrickson, B. L. (2003). The value of positive emotions: The emerging science of positive psychology is coming to understand why it's good to feel good. American Scientist, 91(4), 330–335. https://doi.org/10.1511/2003.4.330
28. Garnefski, N., Kraaij, V., & Spinhoven, P. (2001). Negative life events, cognitive emotion regulation, and emotional problems. Personality and Individual Differences, 30(8), 1311–1327. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0191-8869(00)00113-6
29. Gençöz, T. (2000). Pozitif ve Negatif Duygu Ölçeği: Geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışması [Positive and Negative Affect Schedule: A study of validity and reliability]. Türk Psikoloji Dergisi, 15(46), 19–26.
30. Gentzler, A. L., Palmer, C. A., & Ramsey, M. A. (2016). Savoring with intent: Investigating types of and motives for responses to positive events. Journal of Happiness Studies, 17(3), 937–958. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-015-9625-9
31. Glidden, L. M., Billings, F. J., & Jobe, B. M. (2006). Personality, coping style, and well-being of parents rearing children with developmental disabilities. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 50(12), 949–962. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2788.2006.00929.x
32. Goldman, B. M., & Kernis, M. H. (2002). The role of authenticity in healthy psychological functioning and subjective well-being. Annals of the American Psychotherapy Association, 5(6), 18–20.
33. Grandey, A. A. (2000). Emotion regulation in the workplace: A new way to conceptualize emotional labor. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5(1), 95−110. https://doi.org/10.1037//1076-8998.5.1.95
34. Grandey, A. A., Fisk, G. M., Mattila, A. S., Jansen, K. J., & Sideman, L. A. (2005). Is “service with a smile” enough? Authenticity of positive displays during service encounters. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 96(1), 38–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2004.08.002
35. Greenaway, K. H., & Kalokerinos, E. K. (2017). Suppress for success? Exploring the contexts in which expressing positive emotion can have social costs. European Review of Social Psychology, 28(1), 134−174. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463283.2017.1331874
36. Greenaway, K. H., & Kalokerinos, E. K. (2019). The intersection of goals to experience and express emotion. Emotion Review, 11(1), 50−62. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073918765665
37. Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Review of General Psychology, 2(3), 271−299. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271
38. Gross, J. J. (2014). Emotion regulation: Conceptual and empirical foundations. In J. J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (2nd ed., pp. 3–20). New York, NY: Guilford.
39. Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion regulation: Current status and future prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781
40. Gross, J. J., & John, O. P. (2003). Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(2), 348–362. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.348
41. Haga, M. H., Kraft, P., & Corby, E. (2009). Emotion regulation: Antecedents and well-being outcomes of cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression in cross-cultural samples. Journal of Happiness Studies, 10(3), 271–291. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-007-9080-3
42. Hayes, A. F., & Rockwood, N. J. (2017). Regression-based statistical mediation and moderation analysis in clinical research: Observations, recommendations, and implementation. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 98, 39–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2016.11.001
43. Hochschild, A. R. (1983). The managed heart: Commercialization of human feeling. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
44. Hofmann, S. G., Carpenter, J. K., & Joshua, C. (2016). Interpersonal emotion regulation questionnaire (IERQ): Scale development and psychometric characteristics. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 40(3), 341–356. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-016-9756-2
45. Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations (2. Ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
46. Impett, E. A., Kogan, A., English, T., John, O., Oveis, C., Gordon, A. M., & Keltner, D. (2012). Suppression sours sacrifice: Emotional and relational costs of suppressing emotions in romantic relationships. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38(6), 707−720. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167212437249
47. İmamoğlu, E. O. (1998). Individualism and collectivism in a model and scale of balanced differentiation and integration. Journal of Psychology, 132(1), 95−105. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223989809599268
48. İmamoğlu, E. O., & Beydoğan, B. (2011). Impact of self orientations and work-context-related variables on the well-being of public- and private-sector Turkish employees. The Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 145(4), 267−296. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2011.563328
49. İmamoğlu, E. O., Günaydın, G., & Selçuk, E. (2011). Özgün benliğin yordayıcıları olarak kendileşme ve ilişkililik: Cinsiyetin ve kültürel yönelimlerin ötesinde [Individuation and relatedness as predictors of the authentic self: Beyond gender and cultural orientations]. Türk Psikoloji Dergisi, 26(67), 27–43.
50. John, O. O., & Gross, J. J. (2004). Healthy and unhealthy emotion regulation: Personality processes, individual differences, and life span development. Journal of Personality, 72(6), 1301−1334. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2004.00298.x
51. Jose, P. E., Lim, B. T., & Bryant, F. B. (2012). Does savoring increase happiness? A daily diary study. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 7(3), 176−187. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2012.671345
52. Kernis, M. H., & Goldman, B. M. (2006). A multicomponent conceptualization of authenticity: Theory and research. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 283–357. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(06)38006-9
53. Keyes, C. L. M. (2005). Mental illness and/or mental health? Investigating axioms of the complete state model of health. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73(3), 539–548. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.73.3.539
54. Kifer, Y., Heller, D., Perunovic, W. Q., & Galinsky, A. D. (2013). The good life of the powerful: The experience of power and authenticity enhances subjective well-being. Psychological Science, 24(3), 280–288. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612450891
55. Kim, J., Chen, K., Davis, W. E., Hicks, J. A., & Schlegel, R. J. (2019). Approaching the true self: Promotion focus predicts the experience of authenticity. Journal of Research in Personality, 78, 165−176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2018.12.001
56. Kirwan, M., Svenson, D. W., Pickett, S. M., & Parkhill, M. R. (2019). Emotion regulation as a mediator between sleep quality and interpersonal aggression. Personality and Individual Differences, 148, 32–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.05.018
57. Kitayama, S., Markus, H. R., & Kurokawa, M. (2000). Culture, emotion, and well-being: Good feelings in Japan and the United States. Cognition and Emotion, 14(1), 93-124. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999300379003
58. Koole, S. L. (2009). The psychology of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Cognition & Emotion, 23(1), 4–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930802619031
59. Koole, S. L., & Kuhl, J. (2003). In the search of the real self: A functional perspective on optimal self-esteem and authenticity. Psychological Inquiry, 14(1), 1–16.
60. Kraus, M. W., Chen, S., & Keltner, D. (2011). The power to be me: Power elevates self-concept consistency and authenticity. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47(5), 974–980. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2011.03.017
61. Kuyumcu, B., & Kabasakaloğlu, A. (2018). Otantik olmanın duyuşsal iyi oluşu (pozitif-negatif duygu durumu) yordama gücü: Türk ve İngiliz üniversite öğrencileri arasında otantik olma ve pozitif-negatif duygu durumu [The predictive power of authenticity on emotional well-being (Positive-Negative Affect): Authenticity and positive-negative affect among Turkish and English university students]. Yükseköğretim ve Bilim Dergisi, 8(1), 184–193. https://doi.org/10.5961/jhes.2018.260
62. La Guardia, J. G., Ryan, R. M., Couchman, C. E., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Within-person variation in security of attachment: A self-determination theory perspective on attachment, need fulfillment, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(3), 367–384. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.79.3.367
63. Lakey, C. E., Kernis, M. H., Heppner, W. L., & Lance, C. E. (2007). Individual differences in authenticity and mindfulness as predictors of verbal defensiveness. Journal of Research in Personality, 42(1), 30–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2007.05.002
64. Le, B. M., & Impett, E. A. (2013). When holding back helps: Suppressing negative emotionsduring sacrifice feels authentic and is beneficial for highly interdependent people. Psychological Science, 24(9), 1809−1815. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613475365
65. Le, B. M., & Impett, E. A. (2016). The costs of suppressing negative emotions and amplifying positive emotions during parental caregiving. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 42(3), 323–336. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167216629122
66. Lenton, A. P., Bruder, M., Slabu, L., & Sedikides, C. (2013). How does “being real” feel? The experience of state authenticity. Journal of Personality, 81(3), 276–289. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2012.00805.x
67. Lenton, A. P., Slabu, L., Sedikides, C., & Power, K. (2013). I feel good, therefore I am real: Testing the causal influence of mood on state authenticity. Cognition & Emotion, 27(7), 1202–1224. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2013.778818
68. Livingstone, K. M., & Srivastava, S. (2012). Up-regulating positive emotions in everyday life: Strategies, individual differences, and associations with positive emotion and well-being. Journal of Research in Personality, 46(5), 504–516. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2012.05.009
69. Matsumoto, D. (1990). Cultural similarities and differences in display rules. Motivation and Emotion, 14(3), 195–214. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00995569
70. Mazzuca, S., Kafetsios, K., Livi, S., & Presaghi, F. (2018). Emotion regulation and satisfaction in long-term marital relationships: The role of emotional contagion. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407518804452
71. Miyamoto, Y., & Ma, X. (2011). Dampening or savoring positive emotions: A dialectical cultural script guides emotion regulation. Emotion, 11(6), 1346–1357. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025135
72. Naragon-Gainey, K., McMahon, T. P., & Chacko, T. P. (2017). The structure of common emotion regulation strategies: A meta-analytic examination. Psychological Bulletin, 143(4), 384–427. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000093
73. Niedenthal, P. M., & Ric, F. (2017). Psychology of emotion (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. North, R. J., & Swann, W. B. (2009). Self-verification 360: Illuminating the light and dark sides. Self and Identity, 8(2-3), 131–146. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860802501516
74. Peng, K., & Nisbett, R. E. (1999). Culture, dialectics, and reasoning about contradiction. American Psychologist, 54(9), 741–754. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.9.741
75. Pepping, C. A., Duvenage, M., Cronin, T. J., & Lyons, A. (2016). Adolescent mindfulness and psychopathology: The role of emotion regulation. Personality and Individual Differences, 99, 302–307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.04.089
76. Quoidbach, J., Berry, E. V., Hansenne, M., & Mikolajczak, M. (2010). Positive emotion regulation and well-being: Comparing the impact of eight savoring and dampening strategies. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(5), 368–373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.048
77. Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1(3), 385–401. https://doi.org/10.1177/014662167700100306
78. Reis, H. T., Sheldon, K. M., Gable, S. L., Roscoe, J., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). Daily well-being: The role of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26(4), 419–435. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167200266002
79. Robinson, O. C., Demetre, J. D., & Litman, J. A. (2016). Adult life stage and crisis as predictors of curiosity and authenticity: Testing inferences from Erikson’s lifespan theory. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 41(3), 426–431. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025416645201
80. Rogers, C. (1961). On becoming a person: A therapist’s view of psychotherapy. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
81. Ryan, R. M., LaGuardia, J. G., & Rawsthorne, L. J. (2005). Self-complexity and the authenticity of self-aspects: Effects on well-being and resilience to stressful events. North American Journal of Psychology, 7(3), 431–448.
82. Samios, C., & Khatri, V. (2019). When times get tough: Savoring and relationship satisfaction in couples coping with a stressful life event. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 32(2), 125–140. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615806.2019.1570804
83. Sayers, W. M., Creswell, J. D., & Taren, A. (2015). The emerging neurobiology of mindfulness and emotion processing. In B. D. Ostafin, M. D. Robinson, & B. P. Meier (Eds.), Handbook of mindfulness and self-regulation (pp. 9–22). Springer Science + Business Media.
84. Shevlin, M., & Miles, J. N. (1998). Effects of sample size, model specification, and factor loadings on the GFI in confirmatory factor analysis. Personality and Individual Differences, 25(1), 85–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(98)00055-5
85. Sutton, A. (2020). Living the good life: A meta-analysis of authenticity, well-being and engagement. Personality and Individual Differences, 513, 109645. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.109645
86. Sümer, N., Helvaci, E., & Misirlisoy, M. (2013). Employability of psychology graduates and their job satisfaction in Turkey: An online survey. Psychology Learning & Teaching, 12(2), 189–195. https://doi.org/10.2304/plat.2013.12.2.189
87. Tamir, M. (2016). Why do people regulate their emotions? A taxonomy of motives in emotion regulation. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 20(3), 199–222. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868315586325
88. Tatar, A., & Saltukoğlu, G. (2010). The adaptation of the CES-depression scale into Turkish through the use of confirmatory factor analysis and item response theory and the examination of psychometric characteristics. Bulletin of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 20(3), 213–227.
89. Taylor, S. E., & Stanton, A. L. (2007). Coping resources, coping processes, and mental health. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 3, 377–401. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.3.022806.091520
90. Tugade, M. M., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2007). Regulation of positive emotions: Emotion regulation strategies that promote resilience. Journal of Happiness Studies, 8, 311−333. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-006-9015-4
91. Urry, H. L., & Gross, J. J. (2010). Emotion regulation in older age. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19(6), 352–357. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721410388395
92. Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(6), 1063–1070. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063
93. Westerhof, G. J., & Keyes, C. L. M. (2010). Mental illness and mental health: The two continua model across the lifespan. Journal of Adult Development, 17(2), 110–119. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-009-9082-y
94. Wickham, R. E., Williamson, R. E., Beard, C. L., Kobayashi, C. L. B., & Hirst, T. W. (2016). Authenticity attenuates the negative effects of interpersonal conflict on daily well-being. Journal of Research in Personality, 60, 56–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2015.11.006
95. Wood, A. M. L., Linley, P. A., Maltby, J., Baliousis, M., & Joseph, S. (2008). The authentic personality: A theoretical and empirical conceptualization and the development of the authenticity scale. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 55(3), 385–399. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.55.3.385
96. Yücel, E., İnan, E., Süsen, Y., Karanfil, D., & Yalçınkaya-Alkar, Ö. (2017, July). For better or worse: An exploration about the nature of interpersonal emotion regulation. Paper presented at 15th European Congress of Psychology (ECP). Amsterdam, Netherlands.
97. Zhao, X., Lynch, J. G., Jr., & Chen, Q. (2010). Reconsidering Baron and Kenny: Myths and truths about mediation analysis. Journal of Consumer Research, 37(2), 197–206. https://doi.org/10.1086/651257
98. Zimet, G. D., Dahlem, N. W., Zimet, S. G., & Farley, G. K. (1988). The multidimensional scale of perceived social support. Journal of Personality Assessment, 52(1), 30–41. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa5201_2