Ülke Verilerine göre İşgücüne Katılımda Cinsiyet Ayrımı ve Hofstede’nin Kültür Boyutları arasındaki İlişki

Year 2022, , 473 - 507, 01.09.2022

Hilal Terzi , Fatih Özdemir , Türker Özkan

https://doi.org/10.26650/SP2021-941054

Abstract

Küresel işgücüne katılım oranlarında neden belirgin bir cinsiyet farkı var? Kırılgan istihdamı azaltmanın bir yolu var mı? Kültür değerleri işgücüne katılımda cinsiyet ayrımını ve erkek egemen çalışma yapısını açıklayabilir mi? Bu araştırma, ekonomi kontrol edildikten sonra Hofstede’nin kültür boyutları (güç mesafesi, bireycilik, erillik, belirsizlikten kaçınma ve uzun dönem yönelimlilik) ile işgücüne katılımda cinsiyet ayrımı belirteçleri (kadınların ve erkeklerin işgücüne katılımı ve kırılgan istihdam oranları) arasındaki ilişkiyi incelemektedir. Çalışmanın verileri Hofstede’nin kültür boyutlarından ve Dünya Bankası veritabanından elde edilmiştir. Eksik verisi olan ülkeler çalışma kapsamı dışına çıkarıldığında çalışmanın veri setini 60 ülkenin verisi oluşturmaktadır. Modele ilk aşamada ekonomik kalkınma verisi kontrol değişkeni olarak eklenirken, ikinci aşamada çalışmanın değişkenleri eklenerek veriler iki aşamalı hiyerarşik regresyon yöntemi ile analiz edilmiştir. Bulgular, ekonomik kalkınmayı kontrol ettikten sonra, kadınların işgücüne katılım oranının belirsizlikten kaçınma ülke puanlarıyla negatif yönde ilişkili olduğunu göstermiştir. Diğer taraftan, erkeklerin işgücüne katılım oranı ülkelerin güç mesafesi, bireycilik ve belirsizlikten kaçınma boyut puanlarıyla negatif ilişkili bulunmuştur. Ayrıca hem kadınların hem de erkeklerin kırılgan istihdam oranları, ülkelerin bireycilik konusundaki puanları ile olumsuz yönde ilişkili bulunmuştur. Güç mesafesinin ve belirsizlikten kaçınmanın düşük olduğu ülkelerde daha fazla kadın ve erkeğin işgücüne katıldığının bulunması, kadınların işgücüne katılımının hem kadınların hem de erkeklerin yararlandığı yeni iş fırsatları yarattığı şeklinde yorumlanabilir. Bulgular, farklı ülkelerdeki cinsiyet temelli işgücüne katılım modellerini ve ekonomik cinsiyet ayrımının kültür dinamiklerini anlamayı amaçlayan araştırmacılar için faydalı olabilir.

Keywords

İşgücüne katılımda cinsiyet ayrımı, işgücüne katılım, kırılgan istihdam, Hofstede’nin kültür boyutları

The Relationship between Gender Gap in Employment and Hofstede’s Culture Dimensions depending on Country Scores

Abstract

Why is there a significant gender gap in the global labor force participation? Is there a way to reduce vulnerable employment? May cultural values explain the gender gap in employment and male-dominant work structure? This research examined the associations between Hofstede’s culture dimensions (including power distance, individualism, masculinity, uncertainty avoidance, and long-term orientation) and gender gap in employment indicators (women’s and men’s labor force participation and vulnerable employment rates) after controlling the economy. Secondary data were obtained from Hofstede’s culture dimensions and World Bank databases. When the countries with missing data are excluded, remaining data of 60 countries make up the data set of the study. Two-step hierarchical regression analyses were performed, in which economic development was entered in the first step and study variables were included in the model in the second step. The main results indicated that after controlling economic development, women’s labor force participation rate was negatively related to country scores on uncertainty avoidance. In contrast, men’s labor force participation rate was negatively associated with country scores on power distance, individualism, and uncertainty avoidance. Besides, both women’s and men’s vulnerable employment rates were negatively related to country scores on individualism. The fact that more women and men participate in the labor force in countries with low power distance and uncertainty avoidance can be interpreted as women’s labor force participation creates new job opportunities that both women and men benefit from. The results may be useful for researchers who aim to see the current gender-based labor force participation patterns in different countries and understand the culture dynamics of economic gender gap.

Keywords

Gender gap in employment, labor force participation, vulnerable employment, Hofstede’s culture dimensions

References

• Adeleye, N., Sultana, Y., Jamal, A., Nazeer, M., & Sankaran, A. (2019). Female vulnerable employment in India’s informal sector. International Journal of Gender and Women’s Studies, 7(2), 78-87. https://doi.org/10.15640/ijgws.v7n2p8 google scholar
• Alesina, A., Giuliano, P., & Nunn, N. (2013). On the origins of gender roles: Women and the plough. The Quarterly Journal ofEconomics, 128(2), 469-530. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjt005 google scholar
• Appleton, S., Knight, J., Song, L., & Xia, Q. (2002). Labor retrenchment in China: Determinants and consequences. China Economic Review, 13(2-3), 252-275. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1043-951X(02)00067-6 google scholar
• Arrindell, W.A., Eisemann, M., Richter, J., Oei, T.P.S., Caballo, V.E., vanderEnde, J., Sanavio, E., Bages, N., Feldman, L., Torres, B., Sica, C., Iwawaki, S., Hatzichristou, C., (2003). Masculinity-Femininity as a national characteristic and its relationship with national agoraphobic fear levels: Fodor’s sex role hypothesis revitalized. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41, 795-807. https://doi. org/10.1016/S0005-7967(02)00188-2 google scholar
• Beham, B., Prag, P., & Drobnic, S. (2012). Who’s got the balance? A study of satisfaction with the work-family balance among part-time service sector employees in five Western European countries. The International Journal of Human Resource Management 23(18), 3725-3741. https://doi.org/10.108 0/09585192.2012.654808 google scholar
• Benard, S., & Correll, S. J. (2010). Normative discrimination and the motherhood penalty. Gender & Society, 24(5), 616-646. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243210383142 google scholar
• Benard, S., Paik, I., & Correll, S. J. (2008). Cognitive bias and the motherhood penalty. Hastings Law Journal, 59, 1359-1388. https://repository.uchastings.edu/hastings_law_journal/vol59/iss6/3 google scholar
• Best, D. L., & Williams, J. E. (1994). Masculinity/femininity in the self and ideal self descriptions of university students in fourteen countries. In A.M. Bouvy, F.J.R. Van de Vijver, P. Boski, & P. Schmitz, (Eds.), Journeys into cross-cultural psychology (pp. 297-306). Swets & Zeitlinger. google scholar
• Black, B. (1999). National culture and labour-market flexibility. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 10(4), 592-605. https://doi.org/10.1080/095851999340288 google scholar
• Blair-Loy, M. (2003). Competing devotions: Career and family among women executives. Harvard University Press. google scholar
• Blair-Loy, M., & Wharton, A. S. (2002). Employees’ use of family-responsive policies and the workplace social context. Social Forces, 80(3), 813-845. https://doi.org/10.1353/sof.2002.0002 google scholar
• Blair-Loy, M., & Wharton, A. S. (2004). Organizational commitment and constraints on work-family policy use: Corporate flexibility policies in a global firm. Sociological Perspectives, 47(3), 243267. https://doi.org/10.1525/sop.2004.47.3.243 google scholar
• Blau, F. D., & Kahn, L. M. (2017). The gender wage gap: Extent, trends, and explanations. Journal of Economic Literature, 55(3), 789-865. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.20160995 google scholar
• Brewer, M. B., & Chen, Y. R. (2007). Where (who) are collectives in collectivism? Toward conceptual clarification of individualism and collectivism. Psychological Review, 114, 133-151. https://doi. org/0.1037/0033-295X.114.1.133 google scholar
• Burgess, J., & Connell, J. (2015). Vulnerable work and strategies for inclusion: An introduction. International Journal of Manpower, 36(6), 794-806. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJM-06-2015-0085 google scholar
• Carl, D., Gupta, V., & Javidan, M. (2004). Power Distance. In R. J. House, P. J. Hanges, M. Javidan, P. W. Dorfman, & V. Gupta (Eds.), Culture, leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies (pp. 513-563). Sage Publications. google scholar
• Catalyst (2020, January 15). Pyramid: Women in S&P 500 companies. https://www.catalyst.org/ research/women-in-sp-500-companies. google scholar
• Cha, Y. (2010). Reinforcing separate spheres: The effect of spousal overwork on men’s and women’s employment in dual-earner households. American Sociological Review, 75(2), 303-29. https://doi. org/10.1177/0003122410365307 google scholar
• Chesley, N. (2011). Stay-at-home fathers and breadwinning mothers. Gender & Society, 25(5), 642664. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243211417433 google scholar
• Cheung, H. Y., & Chan, A. W. H. (2007). How culture affects female inequality across countries: An empirical study. Journal of Studies in International Education, 11(2), 157-179. https://doi. org/10.1177/1028315306291538 google scholar
• Coker, M. (2018, June 22). How guardianship laws still control Saudi women. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/22/world/middleeast/saudi-women-guardianship.html google scholar
• Coltrane, S. (2004). Elite careers and family commitment: It’s (still) about gender. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 596(1), 214-220. https://doi. org/10.1177/0002716204268776 google scholar
• Coltrane, S., & Adams, M. (2008). Gender and families. Rowman & Littlefield. google scholar
• Coltrane, S., Miller, E. C., DeHaan, T., & Stewart, L. (2013). Fathers and the flexibility stigma. Journal of Social Issues, 69(2), 279-302. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12015. google scholar
• Cornwall, A., Gideon, J., & Wilson, K. (2008). Introduction: Reclaiming feminism: Gender and neoliberalism. IDS Bulletin, 39(6), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1759-5436.2008.tb00505.x google scholar
• Correll, S. J., Benard, S., & Paik, I. (2007). Getting a job: Is there a motherhood penalty? American Journal of Sociology, 112(5), 1297-1338. https://doi.org/10.1086/511799. google scholar
• Correll, S. J., Kelly, E. L., O’Connor, L. T., & Williams, J. C. (2014). Redesigning, redefining work. Work and Occupations, 41(1), 3-17. https://doi.org/10.1177/0730888413515250 google scholar
• Cuddy, A. J. C., Fiske, S. T., & Glick, P. (2004). When professionals become mothers, warmth doesn’t cut the ice. Journal of Social Issues, 60(4), 701-718. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-4537.2004.00381.x google scholar
• Damaske, S. (2011). For the family? How class and gender shape women’s work. Oxford University Press. google scholar
• Damaske, S. (2020). Job loss and attempts to return to work: Complicating inequalities across gender and class. Gender & Society, 34(1), 7-30. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243219869381 google scholar
• Das, S., & Kotikula, A. (2019). Gender-based employment segregation: Understanding causes and policy interventions. World Bank, Washington, DC. License: Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 3.0 IGO. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/483621554129720460/pdf/Gender-Based-Employment-Segregation-Understanding-Causes-and-Policy-Interventions.pdf google scholar
• Dicke, A.-L., Safavian, N., & Eccles, J. S. (2019). Traditional gender role beliefs and career attainment in STEM: A gendered story? Frontiers in Psychology, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01053 google scholar
• Ely, R. J., Stone, P., & Ammerman, C. (2014, December). Rethink what you ‘know’ about high-achieving women. Harvard Business Review, 92, 101-109. https://hbr.org/2014/12/rethink-what-you-know-about-high-achieving-women google scholar
• Eriksson, S., & Lagerström, J. (2012). Detecting discrimination in the hiring process: Evidence from an Internet-based search channel. Empirical Economics, 43, 537-563. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00181-011-0496-6 google scholar
• Fernandez, R., & Fogli, A. (2009). Culture: An empirical investigation of beliefs, work and fertility. American Economic Journal: Macroeconomics, 1(1), 146-167. https://doi.Org/10.1257/mac.1.1.146 google scholar
• Friedman, B. A. (2007). Globalization implications for human resource management roles. Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal, 19, 157-171. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10672-007-9043-1 google scholar
• Fuegen, K., Biernat, M., Haines, E., & Deaux, K. (2004). Mothers and fathers in the workplace: How gender and parental status influence judgments of job-related competence. Journal of Social Issues, 60(4), 737-754. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-4537.2004.00383.x google scholar
• Gammarano, R. (2019). Persons outside the labour force: How inactive are they really? Delving into the potential labour force with ILO harmonized estimates. ILOSTAT Spotlight on Work Statistics. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---stat/documents/publication/ wcms_714359.pdf google scholar
• Garcia, M. F., Posthuma, R. A., & Roehling, M. V. (2009). Comparing preferences for employing males and nationals across countries: extending relational models and social dominance theory. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 20(12), 2471-2493. https://doi. org/10.1080/09585190903363797 google scholar
• Geert Hofstede (2015). Dimension data matrix. [Data set]. https://geerthofstede.com/wp-content/ uploads/2016/08/6-dimensions-for-website-2015-12-08-0-100.xls google scholar
• Giles, J., Park, A., & Cai, F. (2006). Reemployment of dislocated workers in urban China: The roles of information and incentives. Journal of Comparative Economics, 34(3), 582-607. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.jce.2006.06.006 google scholar
• Gokhool, S., Kasseeah, H., & Tandrayen-Ragoobur, V. (2018). Vulnerable employment in Mauritius: Experience of an upper-middle-income country. International Journal of Development Issues, 17(2), 187-204. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJDI-11-2017-0180 google scholar
• Goldin, C. (1995). The u-shaped female labor force function in economic development and economic history. In T. P. Schultz (Ed.), Investment in women’s human capital and economic development (pp. 61-90). University of Chicago Press. google scholar
• Gupta, N. (2017). Gender inequality in the work environment: A study of private research organizations in India. Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal, 36(3), 255-276. https://doi. org/10.1108/EDI-04-2016-0029 google scholar
• Harris, B. (2017). What is the gender gap (and why is it getting wider)? Retrieved from https://www. weforum.org/agenda/2017/11/the-gender-gap-actually-got-worse-in-2017 google scholar
• Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s consequences: International differences in work-related values. Sage. google scholar
• Hofstede, G. (1984). Culture’s consequences: International differences in work-related values. Sage. google scholar
• Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations. Sage. google scholar
• Hofstede, G. (2006). What did GLOBE really measure? Researchers’ minds versus respondents’ minds. Journal of International Business Studies (JIBS), 37(6), 882-896. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave. jibs.8400233 google scholar
• Hofstede, G. (2007). A European in Asia. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 10, 16-21. https://doi. org/10.1111/j.1467-839X.2006.00206.x google scholar
• Hofstede, G. (2011). Dimensionalizing cultures: The Hofstede model in context. Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, 2(1), 1-26. https://doi.org/10.9707/2307-0919.1014 google scholar
• Hofstede, G., & Bond, M. H. (1988). The Confucius connection: From cultural roots to economic growth. Organizational Dynamics, 16, 4-21. https://doi.org/10.1016/0090-2616(88)90009-5 google scholar
• Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind (Rev.3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill. google scholar
• Holt, H. & Lewis, S. (2011). You can stand on your head and still end up with lower pay: Gliding segregation and gendered work practices in Danish ‘family-friendly’ workplaces. Gender, Work and Organization, 18(S1), e202-e211. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0432.2009.00501.x google scholar
• ILO Workquality (International Labour Organization, 2019). Women at Work in G20 countries: Progress and policy action since 2018. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---cabinet/documents/publication/wcms_713373.pdf google scholar
• Inglehart, R., Haerpfer, C., Moreno, A., Welzel, C., Kizilova, K., Diez-Medrano, J., Lagos, M., Norris, P., Ponarin E., & Puranen, B. et al. (Eds.). (2014). World Values Survey: Round six-country-pooled data file 2010-2014. JD Systems Institute. http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/ WVSDocumentationWV6.jsp. google scholar
• International Labour Organization (ILO, 2016). Women at Work Trends 2016. http://www.ilo.org/ wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/---publ/documents/publication/wcms_457317.pdf google scholar
• International Labour Organization (ILO, 2017). World employment and social outlook: Trends for women 2017. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---inst/documents/ publication/ wcms_557245.pdf google scholar
• International Labour Organization (ILO, 2018). World employment social outlook: Trends for women 2018 - Global snapshot. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/—dgreports/—dcomm/— publ/documents/publication/wcms_619577.pdf google scholar
• International Labour Organization (ILO, 2020). World employment and social outlook trends 2020. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/---publ/documents/publication/ wcms_734455.pdf google scholar
• Jacobs, J., & Gerson, K. (2004). The time divide: Work, family, and gender inequality. Harvard University Press. google scholar
• James, C. G. (2007). Law’s response to pregnancy/workplace conflicts: A critique. Feminist Legal Studies, 15, 167-188. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10691-007-9055-0 google scholar
• Jeknic, R. (2014). Gender equality, young women and culture in the context of the “masculinity/ femininity” as a dimension in Geert Hofstede’s model of “national culture”. Zbornik radova Pravnog fakulteta u Splitu, 51(3), 681-696. https://hrcak.srce.hr/124141 google scholar
• Jordan, A. H., & Zitek, E. M. (2012). Marital status bias in perceptions of employees. Basic and Applied SocialPsychology, 34(5), 474-481. https://doi.org/10.1080/01973533.2012.711687 google scholar
• Kannan, K. P. & Raveendran, G. (2012). Counting and profiling of missing labour force. Economic and Political Weekly, 17(6), 77-80. google scholar
• Kaur-Ballagan, K., & Skinner, G. (2017). Three in four women around the world believe there are unequal rights in their country. https://www.ipsos.com/ipsos-mori/en-uk/three-four-women-around-world-believe-there-are-unequal-rights-their-country google scholar
• Kirkpatrick, D. L. (2006). Seven keys to unlock the four levels of evaluation. Performance Improvement, 45(7), 5-9. https://doi.org/10.1002/pfi.2006.4930450702 google scholar
• Korinek, J. (2005). Trade and gender: Issues and interactions (OECD Trade Policy Working Paper No. 24). Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). https://doi. org/10.1787/826133710302 google scholar
• Kring, S. A. (2017). Gender in employment policies and programmes: What works for women? (ILO Working Paper No. 235). International Labor Office. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_emp/documents/publication/wcms_613536.pdf google scholar
• Kulik, L. (2000). Jobless men and women: A comparative analysis of job search intensity, attitudes toward unemployment, and related responses. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 73(4), 487-500. https://doi.org/10.1348/096317900167173 google scholar
• Legerski, E. M., & Cornwall, M. (2010). Working-class job loss, gender, and the negotiation of household labor. Gender & Society, 24(4), 447-474. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243210374600 google scholar
• Lewis, S. (2001). Restructuring workplace cultures: The ultimate work-family challenge?. Women in Management Review, 16(1), 21-29. https://doi.org/10.1108/09649420110380256 google scholar
• Littrell, R. F., & Bertsch, A. (2013). UN Millennium Development Goals and gender equality in employment in the Middle East. Foresight, 15(4), 249-263. https://doi.org/10.1108/fs-04-2012-0024 google scholar
• Luci, A. (2009). Female labour market participation and economic growth. International Journal of Innovation and Sustainable Development, 4(2), 97-108. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJISD.2009.028065 google scholar
• McKinsey Global Institute (2018). The power of parity: Advancing women’s equality in Asia Pacific. https://www.mckinsey.com/~/media/McKinsey/Featured%20Insights/Gender%20Equality/ The%20power%20of%20parity%20Advancing%20womens%20equality%20in%20Asia%20 Pacific/MGI-The-power-of-parity-Advancing-womens-equality-in-Asia-pacific-Executive-summary.ashx google scholar
• McKinsey Global Institute (2019). The power of parity Advancing women’s equality in Africa. https:// www.mckinsey.com/~/media/McKinsey/Featured%20Insights/Gender%20Equality/The%20 power%20of%20parity%20Advancing%20womens%20equality%20in%20Africa/MGI-The-power-of-parity%20Advancing%20womens%20equality%20in%20Africa.pdf google scholar
• Milazzo, A., & Goldstein, M. (2017). Governance and women’s economic and political participation: Power inequalities, formal constraints and norms. World Development Report 2017 Background Paper. World Bank, Washington, DC. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/ en/506661497953688370/pdf/WDR17-BP-Governance-and-Womens-Participation-Milazzo-Goldstein.pdf google scholar
• Musawah (2018). Thematic report on Muslim family law and Muslim women’s rights in Saudi Arabia. https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/Treaties/CEDAW/Shared%20Documents/SAU/INT_CEDAW_NGO_ SAU_30191_E.pdf google scholar
• OECD Data (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2020). Part-time employment rate [Data set]. https://data.oecd.org/emp/part-time-employment-rate.htm google scholar
• Oishi, A.S., Chan, R. K. H., Wang, L. L., & Kim, J. (2015). Do part-time jobs mitigate workers’ work-family conflict and enhance well-being? New evidence from four East-Asian Societies. Social Indicators Research, 121(1), 5-25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-014-0624-8 google scholar
• Olivetti, C. (2013). The female labor force and long-run development: The American experience in comparative perspective. https://www.bu.edu/econ/ files/2012/11/olivetti_chapter_November2013_ complete.pdf google scholar
• Ortiz-Ospina, E., Tzvetkova, S., & Roser, M. (2018, March). Women’s employment. Our World in Data. https://ourworldindata.org/female-labor-supply google scholar
• Ostry, J. D., Alvarez, J., Espinoza, R. A., & Papageorgiou, C. (2018). Economic gains from gender inclusion: New mechanisms, new evidence. Retrieved from https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/ Staff-Discussion-Notes/Issues/2018/10/09/Economic-Gains-From-Gender-Inclusion-New-Mechanisms-New-Evidence-45543 google scholar
• Padavic, I., Ely, R. J., & Reid, E. M. (2020). Explaining the persistence of gender inequality: The work-family narrative as a social defense against the 24/7 work culture. Administrative Science Quarterly, 65(1), 61-111. https://doi.org/10.1177/0001839219832310 google scholar
• Pan American Health Organization. (2010). The invisible economy and gender inequalities: The importance of measuring and valuing unpaid work. http://www1.paho.org/hq/dmdocuments/2010/ unpaid_work.pdf google scholar
• Park, S., & Lemaire, J. (2011). Culture matters: Long-term orientation and the demand for life insurance. Asia-Pacific Journal of Risk and Insurance, 5(2), 2153-3792. https://doi.org/10.2202/2153-3792.1105 google scholar
• Reid, E. (2015). Embracing, passing, revealing, and the ideal worker image: How people navigate expected and experienced professional identities. Organization Science, 26(4), 997-1017. https:// doi.org/10.1287/orsc.2015.0975 google scholar
• Ridgeway, C. L., & Correll, S. J. (2004). Unpacking the gender system: A theoretical perspective on gender beliefs and social relations. Gender & Society, 18(4), 510-531. https://doi. org/10.1177/0891243204265269 google scholar
• Roeters, A., & Craig, L. (2014). Part-time work, women’s work-life conflict, and job satisfaction: A cross-national comparison of Australia, the Netherlands, Germany, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 55(3), 185-203. https://doi. org/10.1177/0020715214543541 google scholar
• Saunders, R. (2006). Risk and opportunities: Creating options for vulnerable workers. Canadian Policy Research Networks. google scholar
• Schwartz, S. H. (2006). A theory of cultural value orientations: Explication and applications. Comparative Sociology, 5(2/3), 137-182. https://doi.org/10.1163/156913306778667357 google scholar
• Seguino, S. (2010). The global economic crisis, its gender and ethnic implications and policy responses. Gender and Development 18(2), 179-199. https://doi.org/10.1080/13552074.2010.491318 google scholar
• Solbes-Canales, I., Valverde-Montesino, S., & Herranz-Hernandez, P. (2020). Socialization of gender stereotypes related to attributes and professions among young spanish school-aged children. Frontiers in Psychology, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00609 google scholar
• Statista (2015, September). Percentage of GDP contributed by female workers, as of 2015, by region. https://www.statista.com/statistics/523838/women-share-of-gdp-region google scholar
• Stone, P. (2007). Opting out? Why women really quit careers and head home. University of California Press. google scholar
• Townsend, N. W. (2002). The package deal: Marriage, work, and fatherhood in men’s lives. Temple University Press. google scholar
• Triandis, H. C. (1995). Individualism and Collectivism. Westview. google scholar
• Turco, C. J. (2010). Cultural foundations of tokenism: Evidence from the leveraged buyout industry. American Sociological Review, 75, 894-913. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122410388491 google scholar
• Tyler, K. (2002, June 1). Agenda/Training & Development: Evaluating evaluations. HR Magazine. https://www.shrm.org/hr-today/news/hr-magazine/pages/0602agn-traindev.aspx google scholar
• Wagner, J. A, & Hollenbeck, J. R (2005). Organizational behavior. Securing competitive advantage. Thomson South-Western. google scholar
• WEF (World Economic Forum, 2018). The global gender gap report. http://www3.weforum.org/docs/ WEF_GGGR_2018.pdf google scholar
• Wharton, A. S., Chivers, S., & Blair-Loy, M. (2008). Use of formal and informal work- family policies on the digital assembly line. Work and Occupations, 35(3), 327-350. https://doi. org/10.1177/0730888408316393 google scholar
• Williams, J. C., Blair-Loy, M., & Berdahl, J. L. (2013). Cultural schemas, social class, and the flexibility stigma. Journal of Social Issues, 69(2), 209-234. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12012 google scholar
• World Atlas (2020, August 26). How many countries are there in the world? https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/how-many-countries-are-in-the-world.html. google scholar
• World Bank (2012). World development report 2012: Gender equality and development. World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/4391 google scholar
• World Bank (2020). Women, business and the law 2020. Women, Business and the Law. Washington, DC: World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1532-4 google scholar
• World Bank Data (2020a). GNI per capita, Atlas method (current US$) (1120986). [Data set]. The World Bank Group. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GNP.ATLS.CD google scholar
• World Bank Data (2020b). Labor force participation rate, female (% of female population ages 15+) (modeled ILO estimate) (1121364). [Data set]. The World Bank Group. https://data.worldbank.org/ indicator/SL.TLF.CACT.FE.ZS google scholar
• World Bank Data (2020c). Labor force participation rate, male (% of male population ages 15+) (modeled ILO estimate) (1121745). [Data set]. The World Bank Group. https://data.worldbank.org/ indicator/SL.TLF.CACT.MA.ZS google scholar
• World Bank Data (2020d). Labor force participation rate, total (% of total population ages 15+) (modeled ILO estimate) (1506693). [Data set]. The World Bank Group. https://data.worldbank.org/ indicator/SL.TLF.CACT.ZS google scholar
• World Bank Data (2020e). Labor force, total (1496523). [Data set]. The World Bank Group. https:// data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.TOTL.IN google scholar
• World Bank Data (2020f). School enrollment, secondary, female (% gross) (1506272). [Data set]. The World Bank Group. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.SEC.ENRR.FE google scholar
• World Bank Data (2020g). School enrollment, secondary, male (% gross) (1513414) [Data set]. The World Bank Group. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.SEC.ENRR.MA google scholar
• World Bank Data (2020h). School enrollment, tertiary, female (% gross) (1499262). [Data set]. The World Bank Group. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.TER.ENRR.FE google scholar
• World Bank Data (2020i). School enrollment, tertiary, male (% gross) (1506945). [Data set]. The World Bank Group. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.TER.ENRR.MA google scholar
• World Bank Data (2020j). Vulnerable employment, female (% of female employment) (modeled ILO estimate) (1121509). [Data set]. The World Bank Group. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ SL.EMP.VULN.FE.ZS google scholar
• World Bank Data (2020k). Vulnerable employment, male (% of male employment) (modeled ILO estimate) (1121519). [Data set]. The World Bank Group. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ SL.EMP.VULN.MA.ZS google scholar
• World Bank Data Team (2018, July 1). New country classifications by income level: 2018- 2019. google scholar
• World Bank Blogs. https://blogs.worldbank.org/opendata/new-country-classifications-income-level-2018- 2019 google scholar
• World Bank Group (2015). Women, business and the law 2016: Getting to equal. Washington, D.C: World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-0677-3. google scholar
• World Economic Forum (WEF, n.d.). Measuring the global gender gap. Retrieved from https://reports. weforum.org/global-gender-gap-report-2018/measuring-the-global- gender-gap/ google scholar