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1976-1982 KALKIŞMASI VE 2011 SURİYE OLAYLARINA YOL AÇAN İÇSEL DİNAMİKLERİN KARŞILAŞTIRILMASI

Year 2021, Volume: 1 Issue: 1, 28 - 45, 30.06.2021

Abstract

Suriye’de 1970 yılında askeri bir darbeyle başa gelen Hafız Esed, Baas ideolojisinin laik ve sosyalist tabanlı karakteri vasıtasıyla kırsal kesimde yaşayan azınlıkların merkezinde olduğu bir tek adam rejimi inşa etmiştir. Pragmatik yanı ağır basan ‘Neo-Baas’ rejimi, hem sosyo-ekonomik politikaları hem de topluma dayattığı kimlik tahayyülü bakımından, Suriye siyasetindeki en etkin odak olarak şehirli Sünni eşrafın tepkisini çekmiştir. Bu tepki, 1970’li yıllarda yükselişe geçen Müslüman Kardeşler hareketi tarafından örgütlü bir silahlı mücadeleye dönüşmüş ve 1976-1982 yılları arasında ‘İslamcı kalkışma’ olarak bilinen kanlı bir iç savaşa neden olmuştur. 1982 yılındaki Hama Katliamı’nın ardından İslamcı muhalefeti tamamen sindiren Esed, iktidarını oğluna devrettiği 2000 yılına dek rejimin güvenliğini sağlamayı başarmıştır. Beşar Esed döneminde ise neoliberal reform programıyla başlamış ve kısa sürede Suriye’deki klasik Baas dengesinin değiştiği, kırsal-kentli ayrımının derinleştiği ve sınıflar arasındaki ekonomik uçurumun iyice açıldığı bir sürece girilmiştir. 2010 yılının Aralık ayında Tunus’ta başlayan Arap Baharı’nın da etkisiyle Baas rejimine yönelik muhalefet hareketi güçlenmiş ve Suriye’de 14 Mart 2011’de Dera’da başlayan olaylar kısa sürede yabancı güçlerin de müdahil olduğu bir iç savaş halini almıştır. 1976-1982 İslamcı kalkışma ile 2011 olaylarına giden süreçte içsel faktörlerin karşılaştırılmasının, Suriye’de siyasal yapının analizi açısından faydalı olacağı düşünülmektedir. Özellikle hâla devam etmekte olan Suriye İç Savaşı’nın temelleri hakkında geçmişe bakarak çıkarımda bulunulması oldukça önemlidir. Zira böylece sürecin gidişatıyla ilgili daha doğru yorumlarda bulunulması mümkün olacaktır. Çalışmada ileri sürüldüğü üzere; iki olay arasında pek çok ortak özellik bulmak mümkün olsa da sosyo-ekonomik arka plan, mobilizasyon biçimleri ve mezhepsel belirleyiciler bakımından iki toplumsal hareketin oldukça farklı olduğu görülmektedir.

References

  • Abu Jaber, K. (1970). Arap Baas Sosyalist Partisi. (Çev.) Ahmet Ersoy. Altınok Matbaası.
  • Aflaq, M. (1968). The Socialist Ideology of Ba’th. In Kemal Karpat (ed.). Political and Social Thought in the Contemporary Middle East. Fraderick A. Praeger Publishers.
  • Allinson, J. (2015). Class forces, transition and the Arab uprisings: a comparision of Tunusia, Egypt and Syria. Democratization. 22(2), 294-314. https://doi.org/10.1080/13510347.2015.1010812
  • Atlıoğlu, Y. (2007). Beşşar Esad Suriyesi’nde Reform: Demokratikleşme-Güvenlik İkilemi. Tasam Yayınları.
  • Azmah, S. (2014). The uprising of the marginalised: a socio-economic perspective of the Syrian uprising. LSE Middle East Center Paper, 6, 1-28.
  • Baczko, A., Dorronsoro, G., Quesnay, A. (2018). Suriye: Bir İç Savaşın Anatomisi. (Çev). Ayşe Meral. İletişim Yayınları.
  • Balanche, F. (2018). “Secterianism in Syria’s civil war”. The Washington Institute for Near East Policy.
  • Baram, A. (1990). Territorial Nationalism in the Middle East. Middle Eastern Studies. 26(4), 425-448. https://doi.org/10.1080/00263209008700830
  • Batatu, H. (1988). Syria’s Muslim Brethren. In Fred Halliday ve Hamza Allavi (Ed.). State and Idelogy in the Middle East and Pakistan. Macmillan.
  • Ben-Tzur, A. (1968). The Neo-Ba’th Party of Syria. Journal of Contemporary History, 3(3), 161-181. https://doi.org/10.1177/002200946800300310
  • Booysen, H.(2018). Surviving the Syrian Uprising: The Syrian Muslim Brotherhood. In Dara Conduit ve Shahram Akbarzadeh (Ed.). New Opposition in the Middle East. Palgrave Macmillan,
  • Bou-Nacklie, N.E. (1993). Les Troupes Speciales: Religious and Ethnic Recruitment, 1916-46. International Journal of Middle East Studies, 25(4), 645-660.
  • Commins, D., David, L. (2014). Historical Dictionary of Syria. The Scarecrow Press.
  • Conduit, D. (2016). The Patterns of Syrian Uprising: Comparing Hama in 1980-82 and Homs in 2011. British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies. 44(1), 73-87. https://doi.org/10.1080/13530194.2016.1182421
  • Cleveland, W. (2008). Modern Ortadoğu Tarihi. (Çev.) Mehmet Harmancı. Agora Kitaplığı.
  • Devlin, J. (1976). The Ba’th Party: A History from its Origins to 1966. Hoover Inst. Pr.
  • Dibou, T. (2019). Syrian Alawite Youth Values and Identity During the Civil War in 2011-2015. In Vladimir Sazanov, Holger Mölder ve Peeter Espak (Ed.). Cultural Crossroads in the Middle East.Vol 8. University of Tartu Press.
  • Dukhan, H. (2014). Tribes and Tribalism in the Syrian Uprising. Tribes & Neighborhoods: The Dynamics of Subtlety, 6(2), 1-28.
  • Gelbart, J. (2010). The Iran-Syria Axis: A Critical Investigation. Stanford Journal of International Relations. 12(1), 36-42.
  • Gleick, P. (2014). Water, Drought, Climate Change and Conflict in Syria. Weather, Climate and Society, 6(3), 331-340. https://doi.org/10.1175/WCAS-D-13-00059.1
  • Gürpınar, B. (2014). Sürgünde Örgüt: Suriye İhvanı. Marmara Üniversitesi Siyasal Bilimler Dergisi, 2(1), 115-132.
  • Heydemann, S. (2007, October 15). Upgrading Authoritarianism in the Arab World. Brookings Institution. https://www.brookings.edu/research/upgrading-authoritarianism-in-the-arab-world/
  • Hinnebusch, R. (1982). Syria under the Ba’th: State Formation in a Fragmented Society. Arab Studies Quarterly, 4(3), 177-199.
  • Hinnebusch, R. (1990). Authoritarian Power and State Formation in Ba’thist Syria: Army, Party and Peasant. Westview Press.
  • Hinnebusch, R. (2012). Syria, From Authoritarian Upgrading to Revolution. International Affairs, 88(1), 95-113. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2346.2012.01059.x
  • Hokayem, E. (2013). Syria’s Uprising and the Fracturing of Levant. Routledge.
  • Kaylani, N. (1972). The Rise of the Syrian Ba’th, 1940-1958: Political Success, Party Failure. International Journal of Middle East Studies. 3(1), 3-23. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020743800030014
  • Kedourie, E. (1992, Mar 1). Democracy and Arab Political Culture. The Washington Institute for Near Eastern Policy. https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/democracy-and-arab-political-culture
  • Khoury, P. S. (1989). Syria and the French Mandate: The Politics of Arab Nationalism, 1920-1945. Princeton University Press.
  • Leenders, R. (2012). Collective Action and Mobilization in Dar’a: An Anatomy of the Onset of Syria’s Popular Uprising. Mobilization: An International Quarterly, 17(4), 419-434. https://doi.org/10.17813/maiq.17.4.gj8km668p18611hj
  • Leenders, R., Heydeman, S. (2012). Popular Mobilization in Syria: Opportunity and Threat and the Social Networks of Early Risers. Mediterranean Politics, 17(2), 139-159. https://doi.org/10.1080/13629395.2012.694041
  • Lefevre, R. (2013). Ashes of Hama: The Muslim Brotherhood in Syria. New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Lefevre, R. (2015). The Syrian Muslim Brotherhood’s Alawi Conundrum. In Michael Kerr ve Craig Larkin (Ed.). The Alawis of Syria: War, Faith and Politics in the Levant. Oxford University Press.
  • Lesch, D. (2013). Syria: The Fall of the House of Assad. Yale University Press.
  • Mousa, S. (2012). To Protest or not to Protest? The Christian Predicament in the Syrian Uprising. Syrian Studies Association Bulletin, 17(2). https://ojcs.siue.edu/ojs/index.php/ssa/article/view/2802
  • Muslih, M. (1998). Assad’s Foreign Policy Strategy. Middle East Critique, 7(12), 57-75. https://doi.org/10.1080/10669929808720121
  • Parthes, V. (1991). A Look at Syria’s Upper Class: The Bourgeoise and the Ba’th. Middle East Report, 170, 31-37.
  • Parthes, V. (2005). Syria under Bashar al-Asad: Modernisation and the Limits of Change. Routledge.
  • Pierret, T. (2014). The Syrian Baath Party and Sunni Islam: Conflicts and Connivance. Middle East Brief, 77, 1-8.
  • Porta, D. D. (2014). Mobilizing for Democracy: Comparing 1989 and 2011. Oxford University Press.
  • Provence, M. (2005). The Great Syrian Revolt. University of Texas Press.
  • Reily, J. A. (2002). A Small Town in Syria: Ottoman Hama in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. Peter Lang.
  • Sadowski, Y. M. (1987). Patronage and the Ba’th: Corruption and Control in Contemporary Syria. Arab Studies Quarterly, 9(4), 442-461.
  • Ismail, S. (2011). The Syrian Uprising: Imagining and Performing the Nation. Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism, 11(3), 538-549. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1754-9469.2011.01136.x
  • Seale, P. (1990). Asad: The Struggle for the Middle East. University of California Press.
  • Selvik, K. (2008). It’s the Mentality, Stupid: Syria’s Turn to the Private Sector. Changing Regime Discourse and Reform in Syria, 1(1).
  • Stegagno, C. (2017). Misil ‘Aflaq’s Thought between Nationalism and Socialism. Oriento Moderno, 97(1), 154-176.
  • Taştekin, F. (2016). Suriye: Yıkıl Git, Diren Kal!. İletişim Yayınları.
  • Tejel, J.(2005). Suriye Kürtleri: Tarih, Siyaset ve Toplum. (Çev.) Burçin Koç. İntifada Yayınları.
  • van Dam, N. (2000). Suriye’de İktidar Mücadelesi. (Çev.) Aslı Falay Çalkıvık. İletişim Yayınları.
  • van Dam, N. (2017). Destroying a Nation: Civil War in Syria. IB Tauris.
  • Wedeen, L. (1999). Ambiguities of Domination: Politics, Rhetoric and Symbols in Contemporary Syria. University of Chicago Press.
  • Wedeen, L. (2019). Authoritarian Apprehensions: Ideology, Judgement and Mourning in Syria. University of Chicago Press.
  • Wiedl, K. N. (2007). The Hama Massacre – reasons, supporters of the rebellion, consequences. GRIN Verlag.
  • Youmans, W. L., York, J. C. (2012). Social Media and the Activist Toolkit: User Agreements, Corporate Interests and the Information Infrastructure of Modern Social Movements. Journal of Communication, 62(2), 315-329. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2012.01636.x
  • Ziadeh, R. (2010). Power and Policy in Syria: Intelligence Services, Foreign Relations and Democracy in the Modern Middle East. IB Tauris.
  • Ziadeh, R. (2011). The Islamist Movement in Syria: Historical, Political and Social Struggle. Tuğrul Keskin (ed.). The Sociology of Islam: Secularism, Economy and Politics. Reading: Ithaca Press.
  • Zisser, E. (2006). Who’s afraid of Syrian nationalism? National and state identity in Syria. Middle Eastern Studies, 42(2), 179-198. https://doi.org/10.1080/00263200500417512
Year 2021, Volume: 1 Issue: 1, 28 - 45, 30.06.2021

Abstract

References

  • Abu Jaber, K. (1970). Arap Baas Sosyalist Partisi. (Çev.) Ahmet Ersoy. Altınok Matbaası.
  • Aflaq, M. (1968). The Socialist Ideology of Ba’th. In Kemal Karpat (ed.). Political and Social Thought in the Contemporary Middle East. Fraderick A. Praeger Publishers.
  • Allinson, J. (2015). Class forces, transition and the Arab uprisings: a comparision of Tunusia, Egypt and Syria. Democratization. 22(2), 294-314. https://doi.org/10.1080/13510347.2015.1010812
  • Atlıoğlu, Y. (2007). Beşşar Esad Suriyesi’nde Reform: Demokratikleşme-Güvenlik İkilemi. Tasam Yayınları.
  • Azmah, S. (2014). The uprising of the marginalised: a socio-economic perspective of the Syrian uprising. LSE Middle East Center Paper, 6, 1-28.
  • Baczko, A., Dorronsoro, G., Quesnay, A. (2018). Suriye: Bir İç Savaşın Anatomisi. (Çev). Ayşe Meral. İletişim Yayınları.
  • Balanche, F. (2018). “Secterianism in Syria’s civil war”. The Washington Institute for Near East Policy.
  • Baram, A. (1990). Territorial Nationalism in the Middle East. Middle Eastern Studies. 26(4), 425-448. https://doi.org/10.1080/00263209008700830
  • Batatu, H. (1988). Syria’s Muslim Brethren. In Fred Halliday ve Hamza Allavi (Ed.). State and Idelogy in the Middle East and Pakistan. Macmillan.
  • Ben-Tzur, A. (1968). The Neo-Ba’th Party of Syria. Journal of Contemporary History, 3(3), 161-181. https://doi.org/10.1177/002200946800300310
  • Booysen, H.(2018). Surviving the Syrian Uprising: The Syrian Muslim Brotherhood. In Dara Conduit ve Shahram Akbarzadeh (Ed.). New Opposition in the Middle East. Palgrave Macmillan,
  • Bou-Nacklie, N.E. (1993). Les Troupes Speciales: Religious and Ethnic Recruitment, 1916-46. International Journal of Middle East Studies, 25(4), 645-660.
  • Commins, D., David, L. (2014). Historical Dictionary of Syria. The Scarecrow Press.
  • Conduit, D. (2016). The Patterns of Syrian Uprising: Comparing Hama in 1980-82 and Homs in 2011. British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies. 44(1), 73-87. https://doi.org/10.1080/13530194.2016.1182421
  • Cleveland, W. (2008). Modern Ortadoğu Tarihi. (Çev.) Mehmet Harmancı. Agora Kitaplığı.
  • Devlin, J. (1976). The Ba’th Party: A History from its Origins to 1966. Hoover Inst. Pr.
  • Dibou, T. (2019). Syrian Alawite Youth Values and Identity During the Civil War in 2011-2015. In Vladimir Sazanov, Holger Mölder ve Peeter Espak (Ed.). Cultural Crossroads in the Middle East.Vol 8. University of Tartu Press.
  • Dukhan, H. (2014). Tribes and Tribalism in the Syrian Uprising. Tribes & Neighborhoods: The Dynamics of Subtlety, 6(2), 1-28.
  • Gelbart, J. (2010). The Iran-Syria Axis: A Critical Investigation. Stanford Journal of International Relations. 12(1), 36-42.
  • Gleick, P. (2014). Water, Drought, Climate Change and Conflict in Syria. Weather, Climate and Society, 6(3), 331-340. https://doi.org/10.1175/WCAS-D-13-00059.1
  • Gürpınar, B. (2014). Sürgünde Örgüt: Suriye İhvanı. Marmara Üniversitesi Siyasal Bilimler Dergisi, 2(1), 115-132.
  • Heydemann, S. (2007, October 15). Upgrading Authoritarianism in the Arab World. Brookings Institution. https://www.brookings.edu/research/upgrading-authoritarianism-in-the-arab-world/
  • Hinnebusch, R. (1982). Syria under the Ba’th: State Formation in a Fragmented Society. Arab Studies Quarterly, 4(3), 177-199.
  • Hinnebusch, R. (1990). Authoritarian Power and State Formation in Ba’thist Syria: Army, Party and Peasant. Westview Press.
  • Hinnebusch, R. (2012). Syria, From Authoritarian Upgrading to Revolution. International Affairs, 88(1), 95-113. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2346.2012.01059.x
  • Hokayem, E. (2013). Syria’s Uprising and the Fracturing of Levant. Routledge.
  • Kaylani, N. (1972). The Rise of the Syrian Ba’th, 1940-1958: Political Success, Party Failure. International Journal of Middle East Studies. 3(1), 3-23. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020743800030014
  • Kedourie, E. (1992, Mar 1). Democracy and Arab Political Culture. The Washington Institute for Near Eastern Policy. https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/democracy-and-arab-political-culture
  • Khoury, P. S. (1989). Syria and the French Mandate: The Politics of Arab Nationalism, 1920-1945. Princeton University Press.
  • Leenders, R. (2012). Collective Action and Mobilization in Dar’a: An Anatomy of the Onset of Syria’s Popular Uprising. Mobilization: An International Quarterly, 17(4), 419-434. https://doi.org/10.17813/maiq.17.4.gj8km668p18611hj
  • Leenders, R., Heydeman, S. (2012). Popular Mobilization in Syria: Opportunity and Threat and the Social Networks of Early Risers. Mediterranean Politics, 17(2), 139-159. https://doi.org/10.1080/13629395.2012.694041
  • Lefevre, R. (2013). Ashes of Hama: The Muslim Brotherhood in Syria. New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Lefevre, R. (2015). The Syrian Muslim Brotherhood’s Alawi Conundrum. In Michael Kerr ve Craig Larkin (Ed.). The Alawis of Syria: War, Faith and Politics in the Levant. Oxford University Press.
  • Lesch, D. (2013). Syria: The Fall of the House of Assad. Yale University Press.
  • Mousa, S. (2012). To Protest or not to Protest? The Christian Predicament in the Syrian Uprising. Syrian Studies Association Bulletin, 17(2). https://ojcs.siue.edu/ojs/index.php/ssa/article/view/2802
  • Muslih, M. (1998). Assad’s Foreign Policy Strategy. Middle East Critique, 7(12), 57-75. https://doi.org/10.1080/10669929808720121
  • Parthes, V. (1991). A Look at Syria’s Upper Class: The Bourgeoise and the Ba’th. Middle East Report, 170, 31-37.
  • Parthes, V. (2005). Syria under Bashar al-Asad: Modernisation and the Limits of Change. Routledge.
  • Pierret, T. (2014). The Syrian Baath Party and Sunni Islam: Conflicts and Connivance. Middle East Brief, 77, 1-8.
  • Porta, D. D. (2014). Mobilizing for Democracy: Comparing 1989 and 2011. Oxford University Press.
  • Provence, M. (2005). The Great Syrian Revolt. University of Texas Press.
  • Reily, J. A. (2002). A Small Town in Syria: Ottoman Hama in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. Peter Lang.
  • Sadowski, Y. M. (1987). Patronage and the Ba’th: Corruption and Control in Contemporary Syria. Arab Studies Quarterly, 9(4), 442-461.
  • Ismail, S. (2011). The Syrian Uprising: Imagining and Performing the Nation. Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism, 11(3), 538-549. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1754-9469.2011.01136.x
  • Seale, P. (1990). Asad: The Struggle for the Middle East. University of California Press.
  • Selvik, K. (2008). It’s the Mentality, Stupid: Syria’s Turn to the Private Sector. Changing Regime Discourse and Reform in Syria, 1(1).
  • Stegagno, C. (2017). Misil ‘Aflaq’s Thought between Nationalism and Socialism. Oriento Moderno, 97(1), 154-176.
  • Taştekin, F. (2016). Suriye: Yıkıl Git, Diren Kal!. İletişim Yayınları.
  • Tejel, J.(2005). Suriye Kürtleri: Tarih, Siyaset ve Toplum. (Çev.) Burçin Koç. İntifada Yayınları.
  • van Dam, N. (2000). Suriye’de İktidar Mücadelesi. (Çev.) Aslı Falay Çalkıvık. İletişim Yayınları.
  • van Dam, N. (2017). Destroying a Nation: Civil War in Syria. IB Tauris.
  • Wedeen, L. (1999). Ambiguities of Domination: Politics, Rhetoric and Symbols in Contemporary Syria. University of Chicago Press.
  • Wedeen, L. (2019). Authoritarian Apprehensions: Ideology, Judgement and Mourning in Syria. University of Chicago Press.
  • Wiedl, K. N. (2007). The Hama Massacre – reasons, supporters of the rebellion, consequences. GRIN Verlag.
  • Youmans, W. L., York, J. C. (2012). Social Media and the Activist Toolkit: User Agreements, Corporate Interests and the Information Infrastructure of Modern Social Movements. Journal of Communication, 62(2), 315-329. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2012.01636.x
  • Ziadeh, R. (2010). Power and Policy in Syria: Intelligence Services, Foreign Relations and Democracy in the Modern Middle East. IB Tauris.
  • Ziadeh, R. (2011). The Islamist Movement in Syria: Historical, Political and Social Struggle. Tuğrul Keskin (ed.). The Sociology of Islam: Secularism, Economy and Politics. Reading: Ithaca Press.
  • Zisser, E. (2006). Who’s afraid of Syrian nationalism? National and state identity in Syria. Middle Eastern Studies, 42(2), 179-198. https://doi.org/10.1080/00263200500417512
There are 58 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language Turkish
Subjects International Relations
Journal Section Research Articles
Authors

Mehmet Fahri Danış This is me 0000-0001-5872-6873

Publication Date June 30, 2021
Published in Issue Year 2021 Volume: 1 Issue: 1

Cite

APA Danış, M. F. (2021). 1976-1982 KALKIŞMASI VE 2011 SURİYE OLAYLARINA YOL AÇAN İÇSEL DİNAMİKLERİN KARŞILAŞTIRILMASI. Uluslararası İlişkiler Çalışmaları Dergisi, 1(1), 28-45.

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