The Heterogeneous Nature of the Relative Age Effect: The Role of Sport, Developmental Stage, and Selection Context

Abstract

This systematic review aims to comprehensively examine the reflections of the Relative Age Effect (RAE) on athletic performance, athlete selection, and developmental advantage in child and adolescent athletes within the framework of sport type, developmental stage, and selection context. The study was designed in accordance with the PRISMA 2020 guidelines, and studies published between 2019 and 2025 were systematically reviewed. Following the title and abstract screening, 40 studies were evaluated, and after full-text assessment, 30 studies meeting the inclusion criteria were included in the analysis. The majority of the reviewed studies employed a cross-sectional design and involved athletes aged between 3 and 18 years. The findings indicate that the relative age effect is widely observed in sports contexts; however, the magnitude of the effect varies depending on sport type, age category, level of biological maturation, and the structure of selection systems. In particular, athletes born in the first quarter of the year exhibit higher representation and success rates in team sports requiring high levels of physical contact and strength, as well as in selective developmental stages. Conversely, the effect appears to be more limited in some sports characterised by open participation policies or a greater emphasis on technical skills. It is also observed that RAE is more pronounced in early childhood in terms of motor skills and physical fitness parameters; however, structured intervention programs may mitigate this inequality. In conclusion, the relative age effect is a multidimensional phenomenon that should be considered in athlete selection and development processes. The adoption of biological mat-uration-based approaches, flexible age categories, and multidimensional evaluation systems by sports federations and clubs is of critical importance in reducing potential talent loss.

Keywords

• Athletic performance
• relative age effect
• biological maturation
• developmental advantage
• athlete selection.

Ethical Statement

This study is a systematic review based exclusively on previously published and publicly available studies. Therefore, ethics committee approval and informed consent were not required.

Göreli Yaş Etkisinin Heterojen Yapısı: Spor Türü, Gelişim Dönemi ve Seçim Bağlamının Rolü

Abstract

Bu sistematik derlemenin amacı, Göreli Yaş Etkisinin (Relative Age Effect; RAE) çocuk ve ergen sporcularda sportif performans, sporcu seçimi ve gelişimsel avantaj üzerindeki yansımalarını; spor türü, gelişim dönemi ve seçim bağlamı çerçevesinde kapsamlı bir şekilde incelemektir. Çalışma, PRISMA 2020 yönergelerine uygun olarak tasarlanmış ve 2019–2025 yılları arasında yayımlanan çalışmalar sistematik olarak incelenmiştir. Başlık ve özet taramasının ardından 40 çalışma değerlendirmeye alınmış; tam metin incelemesi sonucunda dahil edilme kriterlerini karşılayan 30 çalışma analize dahil edilmiştir. İncelenen çalışmaların büyük çoğunluğunun kesitsel araştırma desenine sahip olduğu ve 3–18 yaş aralığındaki sporcuları kapsadığı belirlenmiştir. Bulgular, göreli yaş etkisinin spor ortamlarında yaygın olarak gözlendiğini; ancak bu etkinin büyüklüğünün spor türüne, yaş kategorisine, biyolojik olgunlaşma düzeyine ve sporcu seçim sistemlerinin yapısına bağlı olarak farklılık gösterdiğini ortaya koymaktadır. Özellikle yılın ilk çeyreğinde doğan sporcuların, yüksek düzeyde fiziksel temas ve kuvvet gerektiren takım sporlarında ve seçici gelişim aşamalarında daha yüksek temsil ve başarı oranlarına sahip oldukları görülmektedir. Buna karşılık, katılım politikalarının daha açık olduğu veya teknik becerilerin daha fazla ön plana çıktığı bazı spor dallarında göreli yaş etkisinin daha sınırlı olduğu anlaşılmaktadır. Ayrıca RAE'nin erken çocukluk döneminde motor beceriler ve fiziksel uygunluk parametreleri açısından daha belirgin olduğu; ancak yapılandırılmış müdahale programlarının bu eşitsizliğin azaltılmasına katkı sağlayabileceği görülmektedir. Sonuç olarak, göreli yaş etkisi, sporcu seçimi ve gelişim süreçlerinde dikkate alınması gereken çok boyutlu bir olgudur. Spor federasyonları ve kulüpler tarafından biyolojik olgunlaşmayı temel alan yaklaşımların, esnek yaş kategorilerinin ve çok boyutlu değerlendirme sistemlerinin benimsenmesi, olası yetenek kayıplarının azaltılması açısından kritik önem taşımaktadır.

Keywords

• Sportif performans
• göreli yaş etkisi
• biyolojik olgunlaşma
• gelişimsel avantaj
• sporcu seçimi.

References

1. Bağcı, E., Çelen, A., & Okan, İ. (2023). Müsabakalara katılan cimnastikçilerde bağıl yaş etkisi. Gazi Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Bilimleri Dergisi, 28(3), 226–230. https://doi.org/10.53434/gbesbd.1284738
2. Bilgiç, M., & Güvenç, A. (2024). The prevalence of relative age effects in a nationwide analysis of racket sports: Happy birthday? PLOS ONE, 19(12), e0316314. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0316314
3. Brustio, P. R., Modena, R., Boccia, G., Vogliazzo, M., & Kelly, A. L. (2023). Youth-to-senior transition in women’s and girls’ football: Towards a better understanding of relative age effects and gender-specific considerations. PLOS ONE, 18(5), e0283781. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0283781
4. Cobley, S., Baker, J., Wattie, N., & McKenna, J. (2009). Annual age-grouping and athlete development: A meta-analytical review of relative age effects in sport. Sports Medicine, 39(3), 235–256. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200939030-00005
5. Cular, D., Babic, M., Katovic, D., Beslija, T., & Kezic, A. (2024). How to compare relative age effect in different sports? A new methodological approach—Example of Youth Olympic Games. Sports, 12(8), 215. https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12080215
6. Cupeiro, R., Rojo-Tirado, M. A., Cadenas-Sanchez, C., Artero, E. G., Peinado, A. B., Labayen, I., Dorado, C., Arias-Palencia, N. M., Moliner-Urdiales, D., Vidal-Conti, J., Conde-Caveda, J., Mora-Gonzalez, J., Vicente-Rodríguez, G., Benito, P. J., & PREFIT Project Group. (2020). The relative age effect on physical fitness in preschool children. Journal of Sports Sciences, 38(13), 1506–1515. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2020.1746559
7. Dalen, T., Ingvaldsen, R. P., Roaas, T. V., Pedersen, A. V., Steen, I., & Aune, T. K. (2017). The impact of physical growth and relative age effect on assessment in physical education. European Journal of Sport Science, 17(4), 482–487. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2016.1268211
8. de la Rubia, A., Lorenzo-Calvo, J., & Lorenzo, A. (2020). Does the relative age effect influence short-term performance and sport career in team sports? A qualitative systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1947. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01947

9. de la Rubia, A., Molina Martín, J. J., Mon-López, D., & López-Serrano, C. (2025). The interactive effect of maturity status and relative age on physical performance within the Spanish Volleyball Federation’s talent pathway: Analysis by sex and playing position. Sci, 7(3), 131. https://doi.org/10.3390/sci7030131
10. Delorme, N., Boiché, J., & Raspaud, M. (2009). The relative age effect in elite sport: The French case. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 80(2), 336–344. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2009.10599568
11. Difernand, A., De Larochelambert, Q., Homo, S., Rousseau, F., Antero, J., Toussaint, J.-F., & Sedeaud, A. (2023). Relative age effects in track-and-field: Identification and performance rebalancing. Frontiers in Physiology, 13, 1082174. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2022.1082174
12. Drenowatz, C., Ferrari, G., Greier, K., & Hinterkörner, F. (2021). Relative age effect in physical fitness during the elementary school years. Pediatric Reports, 13(2), 322–333. https://doi.org/10.3390/pediatric13020040
13. Erdoğan, Y., Pekel, H. A., & Bağcı, E. (2020). 11–12 yaşındaki erkek çocukların bazı fiziksel ve motorik özelliklerinin bağıl yaş etkisi açısından incelenmesi. Gazi Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Bilimleri Dergisi, 25(4), 331–347.
14. Eyibil, M. R., Bayeren, İ., Ecevit, B., & Gürkan, O. (2023). 10–13 yaş aralığındaki futbol okulu öğrencilerinin bazı fiziksel ve motorik özelliklerinin bağıl yaş etkisine göre karşılaştırılması. Spormetre Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Bilimleri Dergisi, 21(2), 139–150. https://doi.org/10.33689/spormetre.1233357
15. Genç, H. (2020). 10–14 yaş arası kız çocukların atletik performanslarının bağıl yaş etkisine göre karşılaştırılması. Sportive, 3(1), 1–15.
16. Gil, S. M., Bidaurrazaga-Letona, I., Larruskain, J., Esain, I., & Irazusta, J. (2021). The relative age effect in young athletes: A countywide analysis of 9–14-year-old participants in all competitive sports. PLOS ONE, 16(7), e0254687. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0254687
17. Heilmann, F., Kuhlig, A., & Stoll, O. (2024). Relative age effects in German youth A and B men's soccer teams: Survival of the fittest? Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, 6, 1432605. https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2024.1432605
18. Irid, Y., Pineau, J.-C., De Larochelambert, Q., Toussaint, J.-F., & Sedeaud, A. (2025). Impact of athletic profiles and the relative age effect on the future achievement levels of young basketball players. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, 7, 1616800. https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2025.1616800
19. Kelly, A. L., Wilson, M. R., Gough, L. A., Knapman, H., Morgan, P., Cole, M., & Williams, C. A. (2020). A longitudinal investigation into the relative age effect in an English professional football club: Exploring the ‘underdog hypothesis’. Science and Medicine in Football, 4(3), 177–184. https://doi.org/10.1080/24733938.2019.1696143
20. Kim, V., Pote, L., Groom, R., Thomson, E., & Nicholls, S. B. (2024). Relative age effect in male and female elite international amateur boxing. Journal of Sports Sciences, 42(19), 1806–1811. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2024.2413722
21. Leonardi, T. J., Kunrath, C. A., Silva, I. F. da, Rucco, G. da S., Aires, H., Berger, A. G., & Cardoso, M. F. da S. (2022). The relative age effect on the selection of young athletes and the performance of Brazilian futsal teams. Cuadernos de Psicología del Deporte, 22(3), 212–226. https://doi.org/10.6018/cpd.482241
22. Li, K., Chen, S., Ma, J., Martins, C., Duncan, M., Sheng, X., Liu, S., & Cai, Y. (2023). The relative age effect on fundamental movement skills in Chinese children aged 3–5 years. BMC Pediatrics, 23(1), 150. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12887-023-03967-6
23. Lloyd, R. S., Oliver, J. L., Faigenbaum, A. D., Howard, R., De Ste Croix, M. B. A., Williams, C. A., Best, T. M., Alvar, B. A., Micheli, L. J., Thomas, D. P., Hatfield, D. L., Cronin, J. B., & Myer, G. D. (2015). Long-term athletic development—Part 1: A pathway for all youth. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 29(5), 1439–1450. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000000756
24. Malina, R. M., Bouchard, C., & Bar-Or, O. (2004). Growth, maturation, and physical activity (2nd ed.). Human Kinetics.
25. Mat-Rasid, S. M., Abdullah, M. R., Juahir, H., Rusdiana, A., Bisyri, A., Maliki, H. M., ... Azmi, A. M. N. (2022). The relative age effect on physical fitness of school children. International Journal of Human Movement and Sports Sciences, 10(5), 1098–1106. https://doi.org/10.13189/saj.2022.100528
26. Musch, J., & Grondin, S. (2001). Unequal competition as an impediment to personal development: A review of the relative age effect in sport. Developmental Review, 21(2), 147–167. https://doi.org/10.1006/drev.2000.0516
27. Navarro-Patón, R., Arufe-Giráldez, V., Sanmiguel-Rodríguez, A., & Mecías-Calvo, M. (2021). Relative age effect on motor competence in children aged 4–5 years. Children, 8(2), 115. https://doi.org/10.3390/children8020115
28. Navarro-Patón, R., Canosa-Pasantes, F., Mecías-Calvo, M., & Arufe-Giráldez, V. (2024). Modification of the relative age effect on 4–6-year-old schoolchildren’s motor competence after an intervention with balance bike. Journal of Human Sport and Exercise, 19(3), 767–778. https://doi.org/10.55860/zan2tf22
29. Page, M. J., McKenzie, J. E., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D., Shamseer, L., Tetzlaff, J. M., Akl, E. A., Brennan, S. E., Chou, R., Glanville, J., Grimshaw, J. M., Hróbjartsson, A., Lalu, M. M., Li, T., Loder, E. W., Mayo-Wilson, E., McDonald, S., & Moher, D. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ, 372, n71. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71
30. Pedersen, A. V., Aune, T. K., Dalen, T., & Lorås, H. (2022). Variations in the relative age effect with age and sex, and over time—Elite-level data from international soccer world cups. PLOS ONE, 17(4), e0264813. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0264813
31. Romann, M., & Cobley, S. (2015). Relative age effects in athletic sprinting and corrective adjustments as a solution for their removal. PLOS ONE, 10(4), e0122988. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0122988
32. Seyyedrezaei, S. H., Khajeaflaton, S., Ghorbani, S., & Dana, A. (2021). Relative age effects on children’s handwriting: Role of visual-motor integration. Journal of Pediatric Perspectives, 9(1), 12775–12783. https://doi.org/10.22038/ijp.2020.52763.4179
33. Simon, C., Carson, F., Faber, I. R., & Hülsdünker, T. (2022). Low prevalence of relative age effects in Luxembourg’s male and female youth football. PLOS ONE, 17(8), e0273019. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0273019
34. Steidl-Müller, L., Müller, E., Hildebrandt, C., & Raschner, C. (2019). Did the relative age effect change over a decade in elite youth ski racing? Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, 1, 55. https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2019.00055
35. Stracciolini, A., Friedman, H. L., Casciano, R., Howell, D., Sugimoto, D., & Micheli, L. J. (2017). The relative age effect on youth sports injuries. The American Journal of Sports Medicine, 45(10), 2378–2384. https://doi.org/10.1177/0363546517704175
36. Wenger, M., & Csapo, R. (2025). The relative age effect and the relationship between biological maturity and athletic performance in Austrian elite youth soccer players. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, 7, 1583880. https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2025.1583880
37. Yagüe, J. M., Molinero, O., Alba, J. Á., & Redondo, J. C. (2020). Evidence for the relative age effect in the Spanish Professional Soccer League. Journal of Human Kinetics, 73, 209–218. https://doi.org/10.2478/hukin-2019-0145
38. Yapar, A. (2020). U16 Basketbol Avrupa Şampiyonasına katılan basketbolcularda doğum yeri ve bağıl yaş etkisinin incelenmesi. Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Üniversitesi Spor Bilimleri Dergisi, 3(3), 63–79.
39. Yıldırım, Y., & Deniz, M. (2023). The relationship between relative age and tournament success for 11-year-old male wrestlers in Turkey. Spor Bilimleri Dergisi, 34(2), 81–87. https://doi.org/10.17644/sbd.1194387
40. Yu, H., & Yang, C. (2025). Relative age effect and its impact on athletic performance among Chinese elite youth male basketball players. Scientific Reports, 15(1), 9538. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-94035-9