Psychoneuroimmunology

Abstract

This article explains the emergence of anew area, psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) anddiscusses the studies conducted in this area.Psychoneuroimmunology is defined as thestudy of interactions between behavior, brain,and immune system. The first study in this areaproved that immune responses can be changedby classical conditioning. Other studies in thisarea showed that since learning is one of thefunctions of brain, they did prove the connectionbetween brain and immune system. The connection between the immune system and thebrain was shown by many convincing findings ofboth human and animal studies. Since PNI isdefined as the study of connection between thebrain and the immune system, the theoreticalconsequence of that link is that psychologicalexperiences, like stress, can have an effect onthe immune function, which in turn may have aneffect on the disease course. Thus, this articlediscusses how and when the stress affects thebrain and cognition. Finally, the frightening sidesof the popularity of psychoneuroimmunologyand the points that needs to be paid attention inorder to stay in the limits of the ‘science’ are discussed

Keywords

• psychoneuroimmunology,stress, immune system, learning

PSİKONÖROİMMÜNOLOJİ

Abstract

Bu makalede yeni bir alan olan psikonöroimmünoloji’nin (PNI) ortaya çıkışı vegünümüze kadar bu alanda ne tür çalışmalaryapıldığı anlatılmıştır. Psikonöroimmünoloji,davranış, beyin ve bağışıklık sisteminin etkileşimini inceleyen alan olarak tanımlanmaktadır.Bu alandaki ilk çalışma bağışıklık sistemi işlevlerinin klasik koşullama ile değiştirilebileceğiniispatlamıştır. Bu alandaki diğer çalışmalar dagöstermiştir ki; öğrenme beynin fonksiyonlarından biri olduğu için beyin ve bağışıklık sistemi arasında bir bağlantı vardır. Bağışıklık sistemi ve merkezi sinir sistemi ve dolayısıylaöğrenme süreçleri arasında bağlantı olduğuhem deney hayvanları hem de insanlarda yapılan çalışmalarla kanıtlanmıştır. Psikonöroimmünoloji beyin ve bağışıklık sistemi arasındaki bağı inceleyen alan olarak tanımlandığından, bu bağın kuramsal sonucu olarak,stres gibi psikolojik deneyimlerin bağışıklık sisteminin işlevleri üzerinde etkili olabileceği,bunun da hastalık süreci üzerinde bir etkisi olabileceği belirtilmiştir. Bu bağlamda, bu makalede stresin beyne ve bilişe, nasıl ve ne zaman zararlı olduğu tartışılmıştır. Son olarak, günümüzde oldukça popüler bir alan psikonöroimmünolojiyi bekleyen tehlikeler ve bu alanda çalışılan araştırmacıların bilim sınırları içerisinde kalmak için neler yapmaları gerektiği tartışılmıştır.

Keywords

• psikonöroimmünoloji,stres, bağışıklık sistemi, öğrenme

References

1. Ader R (1989) Conditioned Immune Responses and Pharmacotherapy. Arthritis Care Res, 2(3): 58–64.
2. Ader R, Cohen N (1975) Behaviorally Condi- tioned Immonusupression. Psychosom Med, 37(4): 333–340.
3. Ader R, Felten DL, Cohen, N (2001) Psychoneuroimmunology. New York: Academic Press.
4. Aggleton JP (1992) The Amydala. New York, Wiley – Liss.
5. Arnsten AFT (1998) The Biology of Being Frazzled. Science, 280: 1711–1712.
6. Azar B (1999) Father of PNI Reflects on the Field’s Growth. APA Monitor, 30(6). Retrieved July 23, 2007 from http://www.apa.org/monitor/jun99/ pni.html.
7. Besedovsky HO, Sorkin E, Felix D ve ark (1977) Hypothalamic Changes During the Immune Respon- se. Eur J Immunol, 7: 323–330.
8. Bauer ME, Vedhara K, Perks P ve ark (2000) Chronic Stress in Caregivers of Dementia Patients is Associated with Reduced Lymphocyte Sensitivity to Glucocorticoids. J Neuroimmunol. 103(1): 84–92.

9. Brosschot JF, Godaert GL, Benshop RJ ve ark (1998) Experimental Stress and Immunological Reactivity, A Closer Look at Perceived Uncontrolla- bility. Psychosom Med, 60: 359–361.
10. Buske-Kirschbaum A, Kirschbaum C, Hellhammer DH (1994) Conditioned Modulation of NK Cells in Humans: Alteration of Cell Activity and Cell Number by Conditioning Protocols. Psychol Beitr, 36(1-2), 100 – 111.
11. Carlson SL, Felton DL, Livnat S ve ark (1987) Alterations of Monoamines in Specific Central Autonomic Nuclei Following Immunization in Mice. Brain Behav Immun, 1: 52–64.
12. Carlson NR (2001) Physiology of Behavior. Massachusetts: Allyn and Bacon.
13. Cohen S (2005) The Pittsburgh Common Cold Studies: Psychological Predictors of Susceptibility to Respiratory Infectious Illness. Int J Behav Med, 12(3): 123-131.
14. Cohen S, Miller GE (2001) Stress, Immunity, and Susceptibility to Upper Respiratory Infection. R Ader, DL Felten, N Cohen (eds.), Psychoneuroimmu- nology (Vol 2), New York, Academic Press, s. 499- 509.
15. Cohen S, Miller GE, Rabin BS (2001) Psychological Stress and Antibody Response to Immunization: A Critical Review of the Human Litera- ture. Psychosom Med, 63: 7-18.
16. Cohen S, Tyrrell DAJ, Smith AP (1991) Psychological Stress and Susceptibility to the Com- mon Cold. N Engl J Med, 325(9): 606–612.
17. Cremaschi GA, Gorelik G, Klecha AJ ve ark (2000) Chronic Stress Influences the Immune System Through the Thyroid Axis. Life Sci, 67(26): 3171- 3179.
18. Dhabhar FS, McEwen BS (1997) Acute Stress Enhances While Chronic Stress Suppresses Cell- Mediated Immunity in Vivo: A Potential Role for Leukocyte Trafficking. Brain Behav Immun, 11(4): 286-306.
19. Dhabhar FS, McEwen BS (1999) Enhancing Versus Suppressive Effects of Stress Hormones on Skin Immune Function. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 96
20. Dhabhar FS, McEwen BS (2001) Bidirectional Effects of Stress and Glucocorticoid Hormones on Immune Function: Possible Explanations for Parado- xical Observations, R Ader, DL Felton, N Cohen (eds.), Psychoneuroimmunology (Vol 1), USA, Academic Press, s. 301-338.
21. Felten DL, Ackerman, KD, Wiegand, SJ ve ark. (1987) Noradrenergic, Sympathetic Innervation of the Spleen: I. Nerve Fibers Associate with Lymphocytes and Macrophages in Specific Compartments of the Splenic White Pulp. J Neurosci Res, 18: 28–36.
22. Francis D, Diorio J, LaPlante P ve ark (1996) The Role of Early Environmental Events in Regula- ting Neuroendocrine Development. Moms, Pups, Stress, and Glucocorticoid Receptors. Annu New York Acad of Sci, 794: 136–152.
23. Glaser R, Kiecolt-Glaser JK (1994) Handbook of Human Stress and Immunity. San Diego (CA): Academic Press.
24. Glaser R, Kiecolt-Glaser JK (2005) Stress- Induced Immune Dysfunction: Implications for Health. Nat Rev Immun, 5: 243-251.
25. Glaser R, Sheridan J, Malarkey WB ve ark (2000) Chronic Stress Modulates the Immune Response to A Pneumococcal Pneumonia Vaccine. Psychosom Med, 62(6): 804–807.
26. Goldman – Rakic PS (1986) The Frontal Lobes. F Plum (ed.), Handbook of Physiology, New York, Raven, s. 373–417.
27. Kemeny ME, Gruenewald TL (1999) Psychoneuroimmunology Update. Semin Gastro- intest Dis, 10: 20-29.
28. Kiecolt-Glaser JK, Glaser R (1999) Chronic Stress and Mortality Among Older Adults. J Am Med Assoc, 282(23): 2259-2260.
29. Herbert TB, Cohen S (1993) Stress and Immu- nity in Humans: A Meta-Analytic Review. Psychosom Med, 55(4): 364-379.
30. Hiramoto RN, Hiramoto NS, Solvason HB ve ark (1987) Regulation of Natural Immunity (NK Activity) by Conditioning. Annu New York Acad of Sci, 496: 545-552.
31. Jabaaij L, Grosheide PM, Heijtink RA ve ark (1993) Influence of Perceived Psychological Stress and Distress on Antibody Response to Low Dose rDNA Hepatitis B Vaccine. J Psychosom Res, 37(4): 361-369.
32. James W (1884) What is an Emotion? Mind, 9: 188–205.
33. Lange CG (1887) Über Gemüthsbewegungen. Leipzig, East Germany: T. Thomas.
34. Maier SF, Watkins LR, Fleshner M (1994) Psychoneuroimmunology: The Interface Between Behavior, Brain, and Immunity. Am Psychol, 49(12): 1004 -1017.
35. Marshland AL, Bachen EA, Cohen S, Manuck SB (2001) Stress, Immunity, and Susceptibility to Infectious Disease. A Baum, TA Revenson, JE Singer (eds.), Handbook of Health Psychology, New Jersey, Erlbaum, s. 683-695.
36. Marx J (1995) How the Glucocorticoids Sup- press Immunity. Science, 270(13): 232–233.
37. McEwen BS, Gould EA, Sakai RR (1992) The Vulnerability of the Hippocampus to Protective and Destructive Effects of Glucocorticoids in Relation to Stress. Br J Psychiatry Suppl, 15:18-23.
38. Meaney MJ, Aitken DH., van Berkel C ve ark (1988) Effect of Neonatal Handling on Age-Related Impairments Associated with the Hippocampus. Science, 239: 766–768.
39. Miller G, Cohen S (2001) Psychological Inter- ventions and the Immune System: A Meta-Analytical Review and Critique. Health Psychol, 20(1): 47-63.
40. Morell V (1995) Zeroing in on How Hormones Affect the Immune System. Science, 269, 773 -775.
41. Olness K, Ader R (1992) Conditioning As An Adjunct in the Pharmacotherapy of Lupus Erythe- matosus: A Case Report. J Dev Behav Pediatr, 13: 124 –125.
42. Pennis E (1997) Tracing Molecules that Make the Brain-Body Connection. Science, 275: 930–931.
43. Rabin BS (1999) Stress, Immune Function, and Health: The Connection. New York: Wiley-Liss.
44. Sapolsky RM (1996) Why is Stress Bad for Your Brain? Science, 273: 749–750.
45. Sapolsky RM (1997) The Importance of A Well- Groomed Child. Science, 12: 1620-1621.
46. Segerstrom SC, Miller GE (2004) Psychological Stress and the Human Immune System: A Meta- Analytic Review of 30 Years of Inquiry. Psychol Bull,
47. Sklar LS, Anisman H (1979) Stress and Coping Factors Influence Tumor Growth. Science, 204 (4405): 513–515.
48. Sklar LS, Anisman H (1980) Social Stress Influences Tumor Growth. Psychosom Med, 42(3): 347-65.
49. Sklar LS, Anisman H (1981) Stress and Cancer. Psychol Bull, 89(3): 369 - 406.
50. Stone AA, Bovbjerg DH, Neale JM ve ark (1992) Development of Common Cold Symptoms Following Experimental Rhinovirus Infection is Related to Prior Stressful Life Events. Behav Med, 18(3): 115–120.
51. Watkins LR, Wiertelak EP, Furness LE ve ark (1994) Illness-Induced Hyperalgesia is Mediated by Spinal Neuropeptides and Excitatory Amino Acids. Brain Res , 664(1-2): 17-24.
52. Wu H, Wang J, Cacioppo JT ve ark (1999) Chronic Stress Associated with Spousal Caregiving of Patients with Alzheimer’s Dementia is Associated with Downregulation of B-Lymphocyte GH mRNA. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci, 54A(4): 212–215.