Review
Differential Diagnosis in Lowerespiratory tract infections, Antibiotic Criteria for antibiotic therapy, Differential criteria for viral-bacterial causes
Abstract
Lower respiratory tract infections cause serious morbidity and mortality both in the children and the adults. Althoug the lower respiratory tract infections are caused mainly by viruses, antibiotics are used in the treatment. But inappropriate antibiotic use may result in antibiotic resistance and may cause undesired side affects. The seperation of viral and bacterial infections lower the rate of unneccessary antibiotic use. For this C reactive protein and procalcitonin values can be used. Bacterias are the major responsible microorganisms in pneumonia and appropriate antibiotic should be started immediatly
References
- 1. Örtqvist A. Treatment of community-acquired lower respiratory tract infections in adults Eur Respir J 2002; 20: Suppl. 36, 40s–53s 2. Gonzales R, Steiner JF, Sande MA. Antibiotic prescribing for adults with colds, upper respiratory tract infections, and bronchitis by ambulatory care physicians. JAMA 1997; 278: 901–904. 3. Macfarlane J, Holmes W, Gard P, Macfarlane R, Rose W, Weston V, et al. Prospective study of the incidence, aetiology and outcome of adult lower respiratory tract illnesses in the community. Thorax. 2001;56:109–14. ) 4. Shapiro DJ, Hicks LA, Pavia AT, Hersh AL. Antibiotic prescribing for adults in ambulatory care in the USA, 2007–09. J Antimicrob Chemother.2014;69:234-40. [PMID: 23887867] doi:10.1093/jac/dkt301). 5. Granizo JJ, Aguilar L, Casal J, Garcia-Rey C, Dal-Re R, Baquero F. Streptococcus pneumoniae resistance to erythromycin and penicillin in relation to macrolide and beta-lactam consumption in Spain (1979–1997). J Antimicrob Chemother 2000; 46: 767–773 6. Hicks LA, Chien YW, Taylor TH Jr, Haber M, Klugman KP; Active Bacterial Core Surveillance (ABCs) Team. Outpatient antibiotic prescribing and nonsusceptible Streptococcus pneumoniae in the United States, 1996–2003. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;53:631-9. [PMID: 21890767] doi:10.1093/cid/cir443.) 7. Hicks LA, Taylor TH Jr, Hunkler RJ. U.S. outpatient antibiotic prescribing, 2010 [Letter]. N Engl J Med. 2013;368:1461- 2. [PMID: 23574140] doi:10.1056/NEJMc1212055 8. M. Woodhead1, F. Blasi2, S. Ewig3, J. Garau4, G. Huchon5, M. Ieven6, A. Ortqvist7, T. Schaberg8, A. Torres9, G. van der Heijden10, R. Read11 and T. J. M. Verheij12 Joint Taskforce of the European Respiratory Society and European Society for Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases Guide- Tablo 5. ASYE’da antibiyotik önerileri Ortam ASYE tipi Şiddet/alt-grup Tercih edilen tedavi Alternatif* Toplum ASYE+ Tümü Amoksisilin veya Amoksisilin/Klavulanik asit, Tetrasiklinler§ makrolidƒ, levofloksasin, moksifloksasin Hastane KOAH Hafif Amoksisilin veya Amoksisilin/Klavulanik asit, Tetrasiklinler§ makrolidƒ, levofloksasin, moksifloksasin Hastane KOAH Orta/ciddi Amoksisilin/ levofloksasin, moksifloksasin Klavulanik asit Hastane KOAH P.aeruginosa için Siprofloksasin levofloksasin, moksifloksasin risk faktörleri var Hastane TEP Ciddi olmayan Penisilin G± Amoksisilin/Klavulanik makrolidƒ; asit±makrolidƒ; 2. veya 3. kuşak aminopenisilin± sefalosporin ± makrolid makrolidƒ; Hastane TEP Ciddi 3. kuşak sefalosporin + 3. kuşak sefalosporin + (levofloksasin veya moksifloksasin) macrolidƒ Hastane TEP Ciddi ve P.aeruginosa Anti-psödomonal Açilüreidopenisilin/β-laktamaz için risk faktörleri var sefalosporin + inhibitör + siprofloksasin veya siprofloksasin Carbapenem + siprofloksasin P.aeruginosa için risk Amoksisilin klavunat, faktörü yok levofloksasin, moksifloksasin Hastane Bronşektazi P.aeruginosa için risk Siprofloksasin faktörü var ASYE: Alt Solunum Yolu Enfeksiyonu; KOAH: Kronik Obstrüktif Akciğer Hastalığı; TEP: Toplumdan Edinilmiş Pnömoni; P.aeruginosa: Pseudomonas aeruginosa #: Kullanılan terimlerin türediği yerler için giriş paragraflarına bakınız; * Tercih edilen ilaca aşırı duyarlılık olduğu durumlarda veya tedavi edilen popülasyonda klinik olarak önemli yaygın direnç prevalansı olduğunda kullanılmak için. Bazı Avrupa ülkelerinde yalnızca “alternatifler” kullanılacaktır.+: antibiyotik tedavisi gerekmeyebilir (antibiyotik tedavisi için endikasyonlar bölümüne bakınız);§: tetrasiklin veya doksisiklin; ƒ: eritromisin, klaritromisin, roksitromisin veya azitromisin. Telitromisin toplumda veya hastanelerde KOAH alevlenmesi veya TEP için düşünülebilecek bir alternatif olabilir. Ancak, bu antibiyotikle ilgili klinik deneyim spesifik önerilerde bulunmak için halen çok sınırlıdır. Oral sefalosporinler zayıf farmakokinetiklerinden ötürü genellikle tavsiye edilmezler. Önerilen dozlar için bakınız Ek 3 (15). M.Woodhead*, F.Blasi#, S. Ewig¶, G.Huchon+, M.Leven§, A. Ortqvistƒ, T.Schaberg**, A.Torres##, G.van der Heijden¶¶ ve T.J.M.Verh Erişkinlerde alt solunum yolu enfeksiyonlarının tedavisi için rehber Eur Respir J 2005; 26: 1138–1180 DOI: 10.1183/09031936.05.00055705 www.kliniktipdergisi.com 19 lines for the management of adult lower respiratory tract infections - Full version Clin Microbiol Infect 2011; 17(Suppl. 6): E1–E59 9. de la Campa AG, Ardanuy C, Balsalobre L et al. Changes in fluoroquinolone-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae after 7- valent conjugate vaccination, Spain. Emerg Infect Dis 2009; 15: 905–911. 10. Stern RC. Acute laryngotracheobronchitis, 3rd ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1983. 11. Johnson J, Liston S. Bacterial tracheitis in adults. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1987;113:204-5. 12. Bandar Al-Mutairi MBBch FRCPC1, Valerie Kirk MD FRCPC2 Bacterial tracheitis in children: Approach to diagnosis and treatmentPaediatr Child Health Vol 9 No 1 January 2004 13. Barnett ML, Linder JA. Antibiotic prescribing for adults with acute bronchitis in the United States, 1996–2010. JAMA. 2014;311:2020-2. [PMID: 24846041] doi: 10.1001/jama.2013.286141 14. Gonzales R, Bartlett JG, Besser RE, Cooper RJ, Hickner JM, Hoffman JR, et al; American Academy of Family Physicians. Principles of appropriate antibiotic use for treatment of uncomplicated acutebronchitis: background. Ann Intern Med. 2001;134:521-9. [PMID: 11255532] doi:10.7326/0003- 4819-134-6-200103200-00021. 15. M.Woodhead, F.Blasi, S. Ewig, G.Huchon, M.Leven, A. Ortqvist, T.Schaberg, A.Torres, G.van der Heijden ve T.J.M.Verheij.Erişkinlerde alt solunum yolu enfeksiyonlarının tedavisi icin rehber Eur Respir J 2005; 26: 1138–1180DOI: 10.1183/09031936.05.00055705 CopyrightERS Journals Ltd 2005 16. Ross H. Albert Diagnosis and Treatment of Acute Bronchitis American Family Physician 2010;82(10):1345-1350.). 17. Whicher J, Bienvenu J, Monneret G. Procalcitonin as an acute phase marker. Ann Clin Biochem 2001; 38: 483-93. 18. Altındiş M, Özdemir M. Bir bakteri infeksiyon belirleyicisi: Prokalsitonin. İnfeksiyon Dergisi 2003; 17(2): 251-7. 19. Gülnihal R, Poyraz G, Yiğitbaşı B. A., ve ark. Serum prokalsitonin düzeyinin akciğer tüberkülozunun tanısı ve tedavi cevabının değerlendirilmesindeki rolü. İzmir Göğüs Hastanesi Dergisi, Cilt XXX Sayı 1, 2016 20. Meier M. Procalcitonin: A new, innovative infection parameter. In: Michael Meier (ed). Biochemical and clinical aspects. 23 tables, 3rd rev and expanded edition. Stuttgart, New York, Thieme, 2000. 21. Snow V, Mottur-Pilson C, Gonzales R; American Academy of Family Physicians. Principles of appropriate antibiotic use for treatment of acute bronchitis in adults. Ann Intern Med. 2001;134: 518-20. [PMID: 11255531] doi:10.7326/0003-4819- 134-6-2001 03200-00020 22. Harris A M., Hicks L. A.,and Qaseem A, for the High Value Care Task Force of the American College of Physicians and for the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention*. Appropriate Antibiotic Use for Acute Respiratory Tract Infection in Adults: Advice for High-Value Care From the American College of Physicians and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Annals of Internal Medicine • Vol. 164 No. 6 • 15 March 2016, Downloaded From: http://annals.org/ on 10/20/2016 23. Llor C, Moragas A, Bayona C, Morros R, Pera H, Plana-Ripoll O, et al. Efficacy of anti-inflammatory or antibiotic treatment in patients with non-complicated acute bronchitis and discoloured sputum: randomised placebo controlled trial. BMJ. 2013;347:f5762. [PMID: 24097128] doi:10.1136/bmj.f5762). 24. Becker LA, Hom J, Villasis-Keever M, van der Wouden JC. Beta2- agonists for acute cough or a clinical diagnosis of acute bronchitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;9:CD001726. [PMID: 26333656] doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001726.pub5. 25. Cooper NJ, Sutton AJ, Abrams KR, Wailoo A, Turner D, Nicholson KG. Effectiveness of neuraminidase inhibitors in treatment and prevention of influenza A and B: systematic review and meta-analyses of randomised controlled trials. BMJ 2003; 326: 1235. 26. Jefferson T, Demicheli V, Rivetti D, Jones M, Di PC, Rivetti A. Antivirals for influenza in healthy adults: systematic review. Lancet 2006; 367: 303–13.. 27. Clinical Microbiology and Infection, M. Woodhead1, F. Blasi2, S. Ewig3, J. Garau4, G. Huchon5, M. Ieven6, A. Ortqvist7, T. Schaberg8, A. Torres9, G. van der Heijden10, R. Read11 and T. J. M. Verheij12 Joint Taskforce of the European Respiratory Society and European Society for Clinical Microbiology and Infectious DiseasesGuidelines for the management of adult lower respiratory tract infections - Full version Volume 17 Supplement 6, November 2011 28. Ortqvist A, Hedlund J, Wretlind B, Carlstrom A, Kalin M. Diagnostic and prognostic value of interleukin-6 and C-reactive protein in communityacquired pneumonia. Scand J Infect Dis 1995; 27: 457– 462. 29. California Medical Association Foundation. Alliance Working for Antibiotic Resistance Education (AWARE) Clinical Practice Guidelines. Accessed August 3, 2006, http://www.aware.md/clinical/clinical_guide. asp. 30. -Gonzales R, Barlett JG, Besser RE, Cooper RJ, Hickner JM, Hoffman JR, Sande MA: Principles of appropriate antibiotic use for treatment of uncomplicated acute bronchitis. Ann Intern Med 2001, 134, 521-529. 31. M.Woodhead, F.Blasi, S. Ewig, G.Huchon, M.Leven, A. Ortqvist, T.Schaberg, A.Torres, G.van der Heijden ve T.J.M.Verheij.Erişkinlerde alt solunum yolu enfeksiyonlarının tedavisi icin rehberEur Respir J 2005; 26: 1138–1180DOI: 10.1183/09031936.05.00055705 CopyrightERS Journals Ltd 2005 32. Macfarlane J. Lower respiratory tract infection and pneumonia in the community. Semin Respir Infect 1999; 14: 151–162. 33. Bartlett JG, Dowell SF, Mandell LA, File TM Jr,Musher DM, Fine MJ. 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Hicks, DO; and Amir Qaseem, MD, PhD, MHA, for the High Value Care Task Force of the American College of Physicians and for the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention*.Appropriate Antibiotic Use for Acute Respiratory Tract Infection in Adults: Advice for High-Value Care From the American College of Physicians and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Annals of Internal Medicine • Vol. 164 No. 6 • 15 March 2016, Downloaded From: http://annals.org/ on 10/20/2016 38. Lieberman D, Schlaeffer F, Boldur I, et al. Multiple pathogens in adult patients admitted with community-acquired pneumonia: a one year prospective study of 346 consecutive patients. Thorax 1996; 51:179–84. 39. Lim WS, Van der Eerden MM, Laing R, et al. Defining community acquired pneumonia severity on presentation to hospital: an international derivation and validation study. Thorax 2003; 58:377-382. 40. Fine MJ, Smith MA, Carson CA, et al. Prognosis and outcomes of patients with community-acquired pneumonia. 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Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2005; 17:388-416. 44. .Macfarlane, R C Read, H J Roberts, M L Levy, M Wani, M A Woodhead and W S Lim, S V Baudouin, R C George, A T Hill, C Jamieson, I Le Jeune, J T Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee BTS guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009 Thorax 2009;64;iii1-iii55 Downloaded from thorax.bmj.com on 28 September 2009.
Year 2016,
Volume: 8 Issue: 5, 11 - 20, 30.09.2016
Abstract
Alt solunum yolu enfeksiyonları çocuk ve yetişkinlerde önemli morbidite ve mortalite nedenidir. Akut alt solunum yolu enfeksiyonlarından çok büyük ölçüde viral etyoloji sorumlu omasına rağmen tedavide sıklıkla antibiyotikler kullanılmaktadır. Oysa uygunsuz antibiyotik kullanımı antibiyotik direnci gelişimi ile yakından ilgilidir. Ayrıca antibiyotik kullanımı istenmiyen yan etkilere neden olabilir. Viral ve bakteryel enfeksiyonların ayrılması gereksiz antibiyotik kullanımını azaltmaktadır. Bu amaçla C-reaktif protein ve prokalsitonin belirteç olarak kullanılabilir. Pnömonilerde ise majör etken baktariler olup süratle doğru antibiyotik tedavisi başlanmalıdır.
Keywords
References
- 1. Örtqvist A. Treatment of community-acquired lower respiratory tract infections in adults Eur Respir J 2002; 20: Suppl. 36, 40s–53s 2. Gonzales R, Steiner JF, Sande MA. Antibiotic prescribing for adults with colds, upper respiratory tract infections, and bronchitis by ambulatory care physicians. JAMA 1997; 278: 901–904. 3. Macfarlane J, Holmes W, Gard P, Macfarlane R, Rose W, Weston V, et al. Prospective study of the incidence, aetiology and outcome of adult lower respiratory tract illnesses in the community. Thorax. 2001;56:109–14. ) 4. Shapiro DJ, Hicks LA, Pavia AT, Hersh AL. Antibiotic prescribing for adults in ambulatory care in the USA, 2007–09. J Antimicrob Chemother.2014;69:234-40. [PMID: 23887867] doi:10.1093/jac/dkt301). 5. Granizo JJ, Aguilar L, Casal J, Garcia-Rey C, Dal-Re R, Baquero F. Streptococcus pneumoniae resistance to erythromycin and penicillin in relation to macrolide and beta-lactam consumption in Spain (1979–1997). J Antimicrob Chemother 2000; 46: 767–773 6. Hicks LA, Chien YW, Taylor TH Jr, Haber M, Klugman KP; Active Bacterial Core Surveillance (ABCs) Team. Outpatient antibiotic prescribing and nonsusceptible Streptococcus pneumoniae in the United States, 1996–2003. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;53:631-9. [PMID: 21890767] doi:10.1093/cid/cir443.) 7. Hicks LA, Taylor TH Jr, Hunkler RJ. U.S. outpatient antibiotic prescribing, 2010 [Letter]. N Engl J Med. 2013;368:1461- 2. [PMID: 23574140] doi:10.1056/NEJMc1212055 8. M. Woodhead1, F. Blasi2, S. Ewig3, J. Garau4, G. Huchon5, M. Ieven6, A. Ortqvist7, T. Schaberg8, A. Torres9, G. van der Heijden10, R. Read11 and T. J. M. Verheij12 Joint Taskforce of the European Respiratory Society and European Society for Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases Guide- Tablo 5. ASYE’da antibiyotik önerileri Ortam ASYE tipi Şiddet/alt-grup Tercih edilen tedavi Alternatif* Toplum ASYE+ Tümü Amoksisilin veya Amoksisilin/Klavulanik asit, Tetrasiklinler§ makrolidƒ, levofloksasin, moksifloksasin Hastane KOAH Hafif Amoksisilin veya Amoksisilin/Klavulanik asit, Tetrasiklinler§ makrolidƒ, levofloksasin, moksifloksasin Hastane KOAH Orta/ciddi Amoksisilin/ levofloksasin, moksifloksasin Klavulanik asit Hastane KOAH P.aeruginosa için Siprofloksasin levofloksasin, moksifloksasin risk faktörleri var Hastane TEP Ciddi olmayan Penisilin G± Amoksisilin/Klavulanik makrolidƒ; asit±makrolidƒ; 2. veya 3. kuşak aminopenisilin± sefalosporin ± makrolid makrolidƒ; Hastane TEP Ciddi 3. kuşak sefalosporin + 3. kuşak sefalosporin + (levofloksasin veya moksifloksasin) macrolidƒ Hastane TEP Ciddi ve P.aeruginosa Anti-psödomonal Açilüreidopenisilin/β-laktamaz için risk faktörleri var sefalosporin + inhibitör + siprofloksasin veya siprofloksasin Carbapenem + siprofloksasin P.aeruginosa için risk Amoksisilin klavunat, faktörü yok levofloksasin, moksifloksasin Hastane Bronşektazi P.aeruginosa için risk Siprofloksasin faktörü var ASYE: Alt Solunum Yolu Enfeksiyonu; KOAH: Kronik Obstrüktif Akciğer Hastalığı; TEP: Toplumdan Edinilmiş Pnömoni; P.aeruginosa: Pseudomonas aeruginosa #: Kullanılan terimlerin türediği yerler için giriş paragraflarına bakınız; * Tercih edilen ilaca aşırı duyarlılık olduğu durumlarda veya tedavi edilen popülasyonda klinik olarak önemli yaygın direnç prevalansı olduğunda kullanılmak için. Bazı Avrupa ülkelerinde yalnızca “alternatifler” kullanılacaktır.+: antibiyotik tedavisi gerekmeyebilir (antibiyotik tedavisi için endikasyonlar bölümüne bakınız);§: tetrasiklin veya doksisiklin; ƒ: eritromisin, klaritromisin, roksitromisin veya azitromisin. Telitromisin toplumda veya hastanelerde KOAH alevlenmesi veya TEP için düşünülebilecek bir alternatif olabilir. Ancak, bu antibiyotikle ilgili klinik deneyim spesifik önerilerde bulunmak için halen çok sınırlıdır. Oral sefalosporinler zayıf farmakokinetiklerinden ötürü genellikle tavsiye edilmezler. Önerilen dozlar için bakınız Ek 3 (15). M.Woodhead*, F.Blasi#, S. Ewig¶, G.Huchon+, M.Leven§, A. Ortqvistƒ, T.Schaberg**, A.Torres##, G.van der Heijden¶¶ ve T.J.M.Verh Erişkinlerde alt solunum yolu enfeksiyonlarının tedavisi için rehber Eur Respir J 2005; 26: 1138–1180 DOI: 10.1183/09031936.05.00055705 www.kliniktipdergisi.com 19 lines for the management of adult lower respiratory tract infections - Full version Clin Microbiol Infect 2011; 17(Suppl. 6): E1–E59 9. de la Campa AG, Ardanuy C, Balsalobre L et al. Changes in fluoroquinolone-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae after 7- valent conjugate vaccination, Spain. Emerg Infect Dis 2009; 15: 905–911. 10. Stern RC. Acute laryngotracheobronchitis, 3rd ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1983. 11. Johnson J, Liston S. Bacterial tracheitis in adults. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1987;113:204-5. 12. Bandar Al-Mutairi MBBch FRCPC1, Valerie Kirk MD FRCPC2 Bacterial tracheitis in children: Approach to diagnosis and treatmentPaediatr Child Health Vol 9 No 1 January 2004 13. Barnett ML, Linder JA. Antibiotic prescribing for adults with acute bronchitis in the United States, 1996–2010. JAMA. 2014;311:2020-2. [PMID: 24846041] doi: 10.1001/jama.2013.286141 14. Gonzales R, Bartlett JG, Besser RE, Cooper RJ, Hickner JM, Hoffman JR, et al; American Academy of Family Physicians. Principles of appropriate antibiotic use for treatment of uncomplicated acutebronchitis: background. Ann Intern Med. 2001;134:521-9. [PMID: 11255532] doi:10.7326/0003- 4819-134-6-200103200-00021. 15. M.Woodhead, F.Blasi, S. Ewig, G.Huchon, M.Leven, A. Ortqvist, T.Schaberg, A.Torres, G.van der Heijden ve T.J.M.Verheij.Erişkinlerde alt solunum yolu enfeksiyonlarının tedavisi icin rehber Eur Respir J 2005; 26: 1138–1180DOI: 10.1183/09031936.05.00055705 CopyrightERS Journals Ltd 2005 16. Ross H. Albert Diagnosis and Treatment of Acute Bronchitis American Family Physician 2010;82(10):1345-1350.). 17. Whicher J, Bienvenu J, Monneret G. Procalcitonin as an acute phase marker. Ann Clin Biochem 2001; 38: 483-93. 18. Altındiş M, Özdemir M. Bir bakteri infeksiyon belirleyicisi: Prokalsitonin. İnfeksiyon Dergisi 2003; 17(2): 251-7. 19. Gülnihal R, Poyraz G, Yiğitbaşı B. A., ve ark. Serum prokalsitonin düzeyinin akciğer tüberkülozunun tanısı ve tedavi cevabının değerlendirilmesindeki rolü. İzmir Göğüs Hastanesi Dergisi, Cilt XXX Sayı 1, 2016 20. Meier M. Procalcitonin: A new, innovative infection parameter. In: Michael Meier (ed). Biochemical and clinical aspects. 23 tables, 3rd rev and expanded edition. Stuttgart, New York, Thieme, 2000. 21. Snow V, Mottur-Pilson C, Gonzales R; American Academy of Family Physicians. Principles of appropriate antibiotic use for treatment of acute bronchitis in adults. Ann Intern Med. 2001;134: 518-20. [PMID: 11255531] doi:10.7326/0003-4819- 134-6-2001 03200-00020 22. Harris A M., Hicks L. A.,and Qaseem A, for the High Value Care Task Force of the American College of Physicians and for the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention*. Appropriate Antibiotic Use for Acute Respiratory Tract Infection in Adults: Advice for High-Value Care From the American College of Physicians and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Annals of Internal Medicine • Vol. 164 No. 6 • 15 March 2016, Downloaded From: http://annals.org/ on 10/20/2016 23. Llor C, Moragas A, Bayona C, Morros R, Pera H, Plana-Ripoll O, et al. Efficacy of anti-inflammatory or antibiotic treatment in patients with non-complicated acute bronchitis and discoloured sputum: randomised placebo controlled trial. BMJ. 2013;347:f5762. [PMID: 24097128] doi:10.1136/bmj.f5762). 24. Becker LA, Hom J, Villasis-Keever M, van der Wouden JC. Beta2- agonists for acute cough or a clinical diagnosis of acute bronchitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;9:CD001726. [PMID: 26333656] doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001726.pub5. 25. Cooper NJ, Sutton AJ, Abrams KR, Wailoo A, Turner D, Nicholson KG. Effectiveness of neuraminidase inhibitors in treatment and prevention of influenza A and B: systematic review and meta-analyses of randomised controlled trials. BMJ 2003; 326: 1235. 26. Jefferson T, Demicheli V, Rivetti D, Jones M, Di PC, Rivetti A. Antivirals for influenza in healthy adults: systematic review. Lancet 2006; 367: 303–13.. 27. Clinical Microbiology and Infection, M. Woodhead1, F. Blasi2, S. Ewig3, J. Garau4, G. Huchon5, M. Ieven6, A. Ortqvist7, T. Schaberg8, A. Torres9, G. van der Heijden10, R. Read11 and T. J. M. Verheij12 Joint Taskforce of the European Respiratory Society and European Society for Clinical Microbiology and Infectious DiseasesGuidelines for the management of adult lower respiratory tract infections - Full version Volume 17 Supplement 6, November 2011 28. Ortqvist A, Hedlund J, Wretlind B, Carlstrom A, Kalin M. Diagnostic and prognostic value of interleukin-6 and C-reactive protein in communityacquired pneumonia. Scand J Infect Dis 1995; 27: 457– 462. 29. California Medical Association Foundation. Alliance Working for Antibiotic Resistance Education (AWARE) Clinical Practice Guidelines. Accessed August 3, 2006, http://www.aware.md/clinical/clinical_guide. asp. 30. -Gonzales R, Barlett JG, Besser RE, Cooper RJ, Hickner JM, Hoffman JR, Sande MA: Principles of appropriate antibiotic use for treatment of uncomplicated acute bronchitis. Ann Intern Med 2001, 134, 521-529. 31. M.Woodhead, F.Blasi, S. Ewig, G.Huchon, M.Leven, A. Ortqvist, T.Schaberg, A.Torres, G.van der Heijden ve T.J.M.Verheij.Erişkinlerde alt solunum yolu enfeksiyonlarının tedavisi icin rehberEur Respir J 2005; 26: 1138–1180DOI: 10.1183/09031936.05.00055705 CopyrightERS Journals Ltd 2005 32. Macfarlane J. Lower respiratory tract infection and pneumonia in the community. Semin Respir Infect 1999; 14: 151–162. 33. Bartlett JG, Dowell SF, Mandell LA, File TM Jr,Musher DM, Fine MJ. Practice guidelines for the management of community- acquired pneumonia in adults. Clin Infect Dis 2000; 31: 347–382.. 34. Jokinen C, Heiskanen L, Juvonen H, et al. Microbial etiology of community-acquired pneumonia in the adult population of 4 municipalities in EasternFinland. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 32: 1141–1154. 35. Mandell L A. Wunderink R G. Anzueto A, at all Communityacquired pneumonia. Lancet 2003; 362:1991–2001. 20 www.kliniktipdergisi.com 36. Syrjala H, Broas M, Suramo I, Ojala A, Lahde S. High-resolution computed tomography for the diagnosis of communityacquired pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis 1998; 27:358–63.. 37. Aaron M. Harris, MD, MPH; Lauri A. 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Details
| Primary Language | Turkish |
|---|---|
| Subjects | Internal Diseases |
| Journal Section | makaleler |
| Authors | |
| Publication Date | September 30, 2016 |
| Published in Issue | Year 2016 Volume: 8 Issue: 5 |
