Immune mechanisms in chronic viral hepatitis

Abstract

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) and Hepatitis C virus (HCV) arethe major causes of chronic liver inflammation worldwide.Although both viruses induce immune-mediated acute andchronic inflammatory liver diseases, the natural history andoutcome of HBV and HCV infections are different. Thisis because of both viruses and host features, like genetic,immunologic and environmental. Hereby, we present theimmune mechanisms and immunopathogenesis involved inchronic viral hepatitis.Keywords: HBV, HCV, Innate immunity, Adaptiveimmunity

References

1. Lok AS, McMahon BJ. Chronic hepatitis B. Hepatology
2. 34: 1225–41.
3. Ganem D, Prince AM. Hepatitis B virus infection – natural
4. history and clinical consequences. N Engl J Med 2004; 350
5. –29.
6. Guidotti LG, Rochford R,Chung J, Shapiro M, Purcell R
7. Chisari FV. Viral clearance without destruction of infected
8. cells during acute HBV infection. Science 1999; 284: 825–9.

9. Rosenberg W. Mechanisms of immune escape in viral
10. hepatitis. Gut 1999; 44: 759–64.
11. McClary H, Koch R, Chisari FV, Guidotti LG. Relative
12. sensitivity of hepatitis B virus and other hepatotropic viruses
13. to the antiviral effects of cytokines. J. Virol 2000; 74: 2255–
14. Wieland S F, Guidotti LG,M Chisari FV. Intrahepatic
15. induction of α/β interferon eliminates viral RNA-containing
16. capsids in hepatitis B virus transgenic mice. J. Virol 2000
17. 4165–73.
18. Robek MD, Wieland SF, Chisari FV. Inhibition of hepatitis
19. B virus replication by interferon requires proteasome activity.
20. J. Virol 2002; 76: 3570–4.
21. Kakimi K, Lane E, Chisari FV, Guidotti LG. Inhibition of
22. hepatitis B virus replication by activated NK T cells does not
23. require inflammatory cell recruitment to the liver. J Immunol
24. 167: 6701–5.
25. Baron JL, Gardiner L, Nishimura S, Shinkai K, Locksley
26. R, Ganem D. Activation of a nonclassical NKT cell subset
27. in a transgenic mouse model of hepatitis B virus infection.
28. Immunity 2002; 16: 583–94.
29. Guidotti LG, Ishikawa T, Hobbs MV, Matzke B, Schreiber R
30. Chisari FV. Intracellular inactivation of the hepatitis B virus
31. by cytotoxic T lymphocytes. Immunity 1996; 4: 35-6.
32. Guidotti LG, Isogawa M, Chisari FV. Host–virus interactions
33. in hepatitis B virus infection. Current Opinion in Immunology
34. 36: 61–6.
35. Schurich A, Khanna P, Lopes AR, et al. Role of the
36. coinhibitory receptor cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen-4 on
37. apoptosis-Prone CD8 T cells in persistent hepatitis B virus
38. infection. Hepatology 2011; 53: 1494-503.
39. Nebbia G, Peppa D, Schurich A, et al. Upregulation of the
40. Tim-3/galectin-9 pathway of T cell exhaustion in chronic
41. hepatitis B virus infection. PLoS One 2012; 7:e47648.
42. Ferrari C. HBV and the immune response. Liver Int 2015
43. (Suppl. 1): 121-8.
44. Billerbeck E, Bottler T, Thimme R. Regulatory T cells in
45. viral hepatitis. World J Gastroenterol 2007; 13: 4858-64.
46. Pallett LJ, Gill US, Quaglia A, et al. Metabolic regulation of
47. hepatitis B immunopathology by myeloid-derived suppressor
48. cells. Nat Med 2015; 21: 591-600.
49. Das A, Ellis G, Pallant C, et al. IL-10-producing regulatory B
50. cells in the pathogenesis of chronic hepatitis B virus infection.J Immunol 2012; 189: 3925-35.
51. Dustin LB, Rice CM. Flying under the radar: The
52. immunobiology of hepatitis C. Ann Rev Immunol 2007; 25
53. -99.
54. Smith DB, Bukh J, Kuiken C, etal. Expanded classification of
55. hepatitis C virus into 7 genotypes and 67 subtypes: updated
56. criteria and genotype as signment web resource. Hepatology
57. 59: 318-27.
58. Helle F, Dubuisson J. Hepatitis C virus entry into host cells.
59. Cell Mol Life Sci 2008; 65: 100-12.
60. Von Hahn T, Rice CM. Hepatitis C virus entry. J Biol Chem
61. 283: 3689-93.
62. Missale G, Bertoni R, Lamonaca V, et al. Different clinical
63. behaviors of acute hepatitis C virus infection are associated
64. with different vigor of the anti-viral cell-mediated immune
65. response. J Clin Invest 1996; 98: 706-14.
66. Tsai SL, Liaw YF, Chen MH, et al. Detection of type 2-like
67. T-helper cells in hepatitis C virus infection: implications for
68. hepatitis C virus chronicity. Hepatology 1997; 25: 449-58.
69. Kaneko T, Moriyama T, Udaka K, et al. Impaired induction
70. of cytotoxic T lymphocytes by antagonism of a weak agonist
71. borne by a variant hepatitis C virus epitope. Eur J Immunol
72. 27: 1782-7.
73. Hoffmann RM, Diepolder HM, Zachoval R, et al. Mapping of
74. immunodominant CD4+ T lymphocyte epitopes of hepatitis
75. C virus antigens and their relevance during the course of
76. chronic infection. Hepatology 1995; 21: 632-8.
77. Diepolder HM, Gerlach JT, Zachoval R, et al.
78. Immunodominant CD4+ T-cell epitope within nonstructural
79. protein 3 in acute hepatitis C virus infection. J Virol 1997
80. 6011–19.
81. Koziel MJ, Walker BD. Characteristics of the intrahepatic
82. cytotoxic T lymphocyte response in chronic hepatitis C virus
83. infection. Springer Semin Immunopathol 1997; 19: 69–83.
84. Wong DK, Dudley DD, Afdhal NH, et al. Liver-derived
85. CTL in hepatitis C virus infection: breadth and specificity
86. of responses in a cohort of persons with chronic infection. J
87. Immunol 1998; 160: 1479–88.
88. Cashman SB, Marsden BD, Dustin LB. The humoral
89. immune response to HCV: understanding is key to vaccine
90. development. Front Immunol. 2014; 5: 550.
91. Rehermann B. Hepatitis C virus versus innate and adaptive
92. immune responses: a tale of coevolution and coexistence. J
93. Clin Invest 2009; 119: 1745-54.
94. Cella M, Jarrossay D, Facchetti F, et al. Plasmacytoid
95. monocytes migrate to inflamed lymph nodes and produce
96. large amounts of type I interferon. Nat Med 1999; 5: 919-23.
97. Khakoo SI, Thio CL, Martin MP, et al. HLA and NK cell
98. inhibitory receptor genes in resolving hepatitis C virus
99. infection. Science 2004; 305: 872-4.
100. Jinushi M, Takehara T, Tatsumi T, et al. Negative regulation of
101. NK cell activities by inhibitory receptor CD94/NKG2Aleads
102. to altered NK cell-induced modulation of dendritic cell
103. functions in chronic hepatitis C virus infection. J. Immunol.
104. 173: 6072-81.
105. Shimakami T, Yamane D, Jangra RK, et al. Stabilization of
106. hepatitis C virus RNA by an Ago2-miR-122 complex. Proc
107. Natl Acad Sci USA 2012; 109: 941-6.
108. Chen Y, Chen J, Wang H, et al. HCV-induced miR-21
109. contributes to evasion of host immune system by targeting
110. MyD88 and IRAK1. PloS Pathog 2013; 9: e1003248.
111. Park SH, Rehermann B. Immune response to HCV and other
112. hepatitis viruses. Immunity 2014; 40; 13-24.
113. Heim MH, Thimme R. Innate and adaptive immune responses
114. in HCV infections. J Hepatol 2014; 61:14-25.
115. Mehta SH, Cox A, Hoover DR, et al. Protection against
116. persistence of hepatitis C. Lancet 2002; 359: 1478-83.
117. Abdel-Hakeem MS, Shoukry NH. Protective immunity
118. against hepatitis C many shades