Islamophobia: Genealogy of a Concept

Abstract

The concept of Islamophobia is a controversial one. There are those who reject the term for various reasons, consider it inadequate, see it as part of a conspiracy, propose new terms and different definitions. This article aims to make sense of all these debates by tracing the genealogy of the term Islamophobia within the framework of Michel Foucault's methodology. The article examines the historical background of the concept, its precursors, its first usage, its various uses over time, the reasons it has been denied by different power centers, the power and authority relations surrounding Islamophobia, and the theoretical ground behind all of this. The purpose of the article is to trace the genealogy of the concept of Islamophobia, which has recently come to the forefront in media studies, and to comprehensively and accurately present the debates surrounding the concept. In this framework, the article first explores the historical development of the concept and then analyzes the theoretical basis of the debates around it. Furthermore, it addresses criticisms of the concept of Islamophobia and examines the denial of the phenomenon itself. In the final two sections, the historical background is also examined. The conclusion summarizes and classifies the debates and definitions surrounding the concept.

Keywords

• Islamophobia
• Anti-Muslim Racism
• Cultural Racism
• Islamophobia in Muslim Majority Societies
• Anti-Semitism

Ethical Statement

The first version of this study was presented as a paper under the title “Islamophobia Anatomoy of a Concept” within the scope of the “1st International Media, Digital Culture,and Religion Congress” (https://congress.mediadjournal.org/dosyalar/mdcrc_book_2024.pdf)

İslamofobi: Bir Kavramın Soy Kütüğü

Abstract

İslamofobi kavramı hiç şüphesiz tartışmalı bir kavramdır. Kavramı çeşitli nedenlerle reddedenler, yetersiz görenler, bir komplonun parçası olarak görenler, yeni kavramlar ve farklı tanımlar teklif edenler bulunmaktadır. Bu makale bütün bu tartışmaları anlamlandırmak için Michael Foucault’nun geliştirdiği metodoloji çerçevesinde İslamofobi kavramının soy kütüğünü çıkarmaktadır. Kavramın tarihsel arka planı, öncülleri, ilk ne zaman kullanıldığı, zaman içerisinde farklı kullanımları, tanımları, farklı güç odakları tarafından neden inkâr edildiği, İslam düşmanlığının etrafındaki güç ve iktidar ilişkileri ve bütün bunların arka planındaki teorik zemin incelenmektedir. Makalenin amacı medya çalışmalarında son dönemde ön plana çıkan İslamofobi kavramının soy kütüğünü çıkararak kavram etrafında cereyan eden tartışmaları efradını cami ağyarını mâni bir şekilde ortaya koymaktır. Bu çerçevede makalede önce kavramın tarihçesi incelenerek daha sonra da İslamofobi kavramı etrafında cereyan eden tartışmaların teorik ve İslamofobi kavramına yönelik eleştiriler ve İslamofobi olgusunun inkârı ele alınmaktadır. Bu çerçevede İslamofobi kavramı ve araştırmalarına yeni pencereler açan Müslüman toplumlarda İslamofobi meselesi ve İslamofobi antisemitizm ilişkisi de makale de ele alınmaktadır. Makalenin son iki bölümünde İslamofobi olgusunun tarihsel arka planı ele alınmakta, sonuç bölümünde ise kavramla ilgili tartışmalar ve tanımlar sınıflandırılarak özetlenmektedir.

Keywords

• İslamofobi
• Müslüman Karşıtı Irkçılık
• Kültürel Irkçılık
• Müslüman Toplumlarda İslamofobi
• Antisemitizm

Ethical Statement

Bu çalışmanın ilk hali “1st International Media, Digital Culture,and Religion Congress” kapsamında “Islamophobia Anatomoy of a Concept” başlığı altında bildiri olarak sunulmuştur. (https://congress.mediadjournal.org/dosyalar/mdcrc_book_2024.pdf)

References

1. Allen, C. (2007). Islamophobia and its consequences. Içinde European Islam. Challenges for Public Policy and Society (ss. 144-167). CEPS Centre for European Policy Studies. https://www.ceeol.com/search/chapter-detail?id=509731
2. Allen, C. (2010). Islamophobia (1. bs). Routledge.
3. Allen, C., & Nielsen, J. S. (2002). Islamophobia in the EU after 11 September 2001: Summary report. EUMC.
4. Altay, İ. (2017, Şubat 13). Calling “Islamophobia” what it is: Anti-Muslim. Daily Sabah. https://www.dailysabah.com/readers-corner/2017/02/13/calling-islamophobia-what-it-is-anti-muslim
5. Ar, M. (2023). Kültürel ırkçılık bağlamında İslamofobi ve antisemitizm ilişkisi. Dinbilimleri Akademik Araştırma Dergisi, 23(2), 499-522.
6. Asbridge, T. (2011). The crusades: The authoritative history of the war for the holy land (Reprint edition). Harper Collins Publishers.
7. Attia, I. (2007). Orient-und IslamBilder: Interdisziplinäre beiträge zu orientalismus und antimuslimischem rassismus. Unrast Verlag.
8. Bayraklı, E. & Farid Hafez. (2016). European Islamophobia report 2015. SETA. https://www.setav.org/en/book/european-islamophobia-report-2015

9. Bayraklı, E., & Gündörmez, O. (2022). Türkiye’de İslamofobi. Vadi Yayınları. https://www.vadiyayinlari.com.tr/turkiyede-islamofobi
10. Bayraklı, E., & Güngörmez, O. (2018). İslamofobi ve anti-semitizm karşılaştırmalarını anlamlandırmak: Kapsamlı bir literatür değerlendirmesi. Muhafazakar Düşünce Dergisi, 14(53), Article 53.
11. Bayraklı, E., & Hafez, F. (2019, Temmuz 10). European Islamophobia report. European Islamophobia Report - 2022. https://islamophobiareport.com/en/
12. Bayraklı, E., & Hafez, F. (2023). European Islamophobia report (EIR) 2022. Journal of Media and Religion Studies, 6(1), Article 1. https://doi.org/10.47951/mediad.1302245
13. Bayraklı, E., & Hafez, F. (2024). European Islamophobia report 2023 (s. 794). Leopold Weiss Institute.
14. Bayraklı, E., & Yerlikaya, T. (2017). Müslüman toplumlarda İslamofobi: Türkiye örneği. Ombudsman Akademik, 7, Article 7. https://doi.org/10.32002/ombudsmanakademik.440210
15. Bazian, H. (2018, Ağustos 20). Islamophobia and structuring the post-cold war new world order. Daily Sabah. https://www.dailysabah.com/columns/hatem-bazian/2018/08/20/islamophobia-and-structuring-the-post-cold-war-new-world-order
16. Benz, W. (2011). Antisemitismus und „Islamkritik“: Bilanz und perspektive (1st edition). Metropol-Verlag.
17. Bezci, B., & Çiftçi, Y. (2014). Self oryantalizm: İçimizdeki modernite ve/veya içselleştirdiğimiz modernleşme. Akademik İncelemeler Dergisi, 1, 139-166.
18. Blaut, J. M. (1992). The theory of cultural racism. Antipode, 24(4), 289-299. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8330.1992.tb00448.x
19. Bleich, E. (2011). What Is Islamophobia and how much is there? Theorizing and measuring an emerging comparative concept. American Behavioral Scientist, 55(12), 1581-1600. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764211409387
20. Bodissey, B. (2020, Şubat 1). Islamic sedition. Gates of Vienna. https://gatesofvienna.net/2020/02/islamic-sedition/?utm_source=chatgpt.com
21. Boyraz, H. M. (2021). Türkiye’de İslamofobi çalışmaları: Kitaplar ve lisansüstü tezler özelinde bir literatür değerlendirmesi. Avrasya Sosyal ve Ekonomi Araştırmaları Dergisi, 8(4), 96-113.
22. Bush, G. W. (2003). The national security strategy of the United States of America (Washington, DC). The White House.
23. Cambridge Dictionary. (2024, Aralık 18). Islamophobia. https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/islamophobia
24. Canatan, K. (2017). Batının doğuda bir şeytan yaratma girişimi olarak İslamofobi ve anti-İslamizm. İlahiyat Akademi, 6, Article 6.
25. Center for Race and Gender. (2024). Islamophobia research and documentation project. https://crg.berkeley.edu/research/research-initiatives/islamophobia-research-and-documentation-project
26. Cesari, J. (2013). Why the west fears Islam: An exploration of Muslims in liberal democracies (2013th edition). Palgrave Macmillan.
27. Chatham House. (2017, Şubat 7). What do Europeans think about Muslim immigration? | Chatham House – International Affairs Think Tank. Chatham House – International Affairs Think Tank. https://www.chathamhouse.org/2017/02/what-do-europeans-think-about-muslim-immigration
28. Chomsky, N. (2004). Hegemony or survival: America’s quest for global dominance. Penguin Books Ltd. http://www.dr.com.tr/Kitap/Hegemony-or-Survival-Americas-Quest-for-Global-Dominance/Noam-Chomsky/Foreign-Languages/History/Politics-and-Current-Affairs/urunno=0000000635955?srsltid=AfmBOop4l1SHzi0XmhPzxIUH3EIGROUgTy3N5gls3SGzilBEZVJ9_cKU
29. Conway, G. (1997). Islamophobia: A challenge for us all. The Runnymede Trust Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia. https://mcislamofobia.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Islamophobia-a-challenge-for-us-all-without-cartoons-1.pdf
30. Council on American-Islamic Relations. (2024). Islamophobia reports – Islamophobia. Council on American-Islamic Relations. https://islamophobia.org/islamophobia-reports/
31. Çakaş, C. Ö. (2019). Avrupa toplumunda ırkçılığın iki yüzü: Antisemitizm ve İslamofobi arasındaki benzerliklerin ve farklılıkların karşılaştırmalı analizi. Akademik İzdüşüm Dergisi, 4(2), Article 2.
32. Çakır, M. (2019). Kültürel (yeni) ırkçılık nedir? Kuramsal bir değerlendirme. Akdeniz Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 6, Article 6.
33. Çiftçi, S. (2012). Islamophobia and threat perceptions: Explaining anti-Muslim sentiment in the West. Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, 32(3), 293-309.
34. Dershowitz, A. M. (2003). Why terrorism works: Understanding the threat, responding to the challenge. Yale University Press. https://yalebooks.yale.edu/9780300101539/why-terrorism-works
35. Elani, F., & Khan, O. (2017). Islamophobia: Still a challenge for us all. Runnymede. https://www.runnymedetrust.org//publications/islamophobia-still-a-challenge-for-us-all
36. Esposito, J. L. (1999). The Islamic threat: Myth or reality? (3rd edition). Oxford University Press.
37. Esposito, J. L., & Kalin, I. (Ed.). (2011). Islamophobia: The Challenge of Pluralism in the 21st Century (1st edition). Oxford University Press.
38. Esposito, J. L., & Voll, J. O. (2003). Islam and the West. Içinde P. Hatzopoulos & F. Petito (Ed.), Religion in International Relations: The Return from Exile (ss. 237-269). Palgrave Macmillan US. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781403982360_9
39. Ethnic and Racial Studies. (2013). Racialization and religion: Race, culture and difference in the study of antisemitism and Islamophobia. 36(3).
40. European Studies. (2012). Anti-semitism, racism and Islamophobia. 14(2).
41. European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights. (2017, Kasım 30). Second European Union minorities and discrimination survey—technical report. European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights. https://fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2017/second-european-union-minorities-and-discrimination-survey-technical-report
42. European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights. (2021, Haziran 1). Fundamental rights report 2021. European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights. https://fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2021/fundamental-rights-report-2021
43. European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights. (2024, Ekim 24). Muslims in Europe face ever more racism and discrimination. European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights. https://fra.europa.eu/en/news/2024/muslims-europe-face-ever-more-racism-and-discrimination
44. Facing History & Ourselves. (2023, Haziran 16). Islamophobia, its past and its present (advanced). Facing History & Ourselves. https://www.facinghistory.org/en-gb/resource-library/islamophobia-its-past-its-present-advanced
45. Farid Hafez. (2023, Kasım 17). Görüş - Beyaz ırkçılığın ikiz kardeşleri: Antisemitizm ve İslamofobi. Anadolu Ajansı. https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/analiz/gorus-beyaz-irkciligin-ikiz-kardesleri-antisemitizm-ve-islamofobi/3056212
46. Fernando, M. L. (2014). The republic unsettled: Muslim French and the contradictions of secularism. Duke University Press Books.
47. Fukuyama, F. (2020). The end of history and the last man (1. Edition). Penguin Books Ltd.
48. Gada, M. Y. (2017). Islamophobia and its historical roots content, context, and consequences. Hamdard Islamicus, 40(2), Article 2. https://doi.org/10.57144/hi.v40i2.149
49. Gordon, M. R., & Trainor, B. E. (2007). Cobra II: The inside story of the invasion and occupation of Iraq. Vintage.
50. Hadar, L. T. (1992, Ağustos 27). The “green peril”: Creating the Islamic fundamentalist threat. Cato Institute. https://www.cato.org/policy-analysis/green-peril-creating-islamic-fundamentalist-threat
51. Hafez, F. (2016). Comparing anti-semitism and Islamophobia: The state of the field. Islamophobia Studies Journal, 3(2), 16-34.
52. Hafez, F. (2018). Schools of thought in Islamophobia studies: Prejudice, racism, and decoloniality. Islamophobia Studies Journal, 4, 210-225. https://doi.org/10.13169/islastudj.4.2.0210
53. Hate Watch. (2024). Hindutva Watch. https://www.hindutvawatch.org/hatewatch/
54. Hıdır, Ö. (2017). Islamofobi-ırkçılık-“kültürel ırkçılık” ilişkisi. Ombudsman Akademik, 7, Article 7. https://doi.org/10.32002/ombudsmanakademik.440203
55. Hoffman, B. (2017). Inside terrorism (3. Edition). Columbia University Press. https://www.pandora.com.tr/kitap/inside-terrorism/581944
56. Huntington, S. P. (2002). The clash of civilizations: And the remaking of world order (re-issue). Simon & Schuster.
57. India: Citizenship Amendment Act is a blow to Indian constitutional values and international standards. (2024, Mart 14). Amnesty International. https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2024/03/india-citizenship-amendment-act-is-a-blow-to-indian-constitutional-values-and-international-standards/
58. Işık, V. (2023). Gelenek ve yenilenme geriliminde Akif’in tutumu. Dicle Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 32 (Dicle Üniversitesi'nin 50. Yılına Özel 50 Makale), Article 32 (Dicle Üniversitesi'nin 50. Yılına Özel 50 Makale).
59. İmamoğlu, V. (2009). Mekke putperestlerinin İslam’la yüzleşmesi. Uluslararası Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, 2(6), 317-319.
60. Kalmar, I. (2009). Anti-semitism and Islamophobia: The formation of a secret. Human Architecture: Journal of the Sociology of Self-Knowledge, 7(2). https://scholarworks.umb.edu/humanarchitecture/vol7/iss2/11
61. Kalmar, I. (2017). Is Islamophobia the new antisemitism? SETA. https://www.setav.org/en/european-studies/is-islamophobia-the-new-antisemitism
62. Kalmar, I., & Ramadan, T. (2016). Anti-semitism and Islamophobia: Historical and contemporary connections and parallels. İçinde The Routledge Handbook of Muslim-Jewish Relations (1. bs, ss. 328-349). Routledge.
63. Kırtepe, S., & Öztunç, E. (2020). İslamofobi kavramı yerine İslamodium kavramı. Tokat İlmiyat Dergisi, 8(1), Article 1. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3894592
64. Koyutürk, B., & Şahin, G. (2022). 11 Eylül 2001 saldırıları sonrasında terörizmle mücadelede ABD Başkanlarının söylemleri ve politikaları. Diplomasi Araştırmaları Dergisi, 4(2), 1-17.
65. Kumar, D. (2012). Islamophobia and the politics of empire. Haymarket Books.
66. Lean, N. (2019). İslamofobi Endüstrisi (3. bs). DİB Yayınları.
67. Loic Le Quellec, J. (2019, Haziran 19). Histoire et mythe conspirationniste du mot « islamophobie ». Fragments sur les temps présents. https://tempspresents.com/2019/06/19/histoire-et-mythe-conspirationniste-du-mot-islamophobie/
68. Maizland, L. (2022, Eylül 22). China’s repression of Uyghurs in Xinjiang. Council on Foreign Relations. https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/china-xinjiang-uyghurs-muslims-repression-genocide-human-rights
69. Maktoob (Direktör). (2024, Ekim 9). “Islamophobia is the grammar of world order” says Prof Salman Sayyid | Maktoob [Video recording]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s5fshByd7zA
70. Marx, K., & Engels, F. (1848). Komünist parti manifestosu. marxists.org. https://www.marxists.org/turkce/m-e/1848/manifest/kpm.htm
71. Modood, T. (2005, Eylül 29). Remaking multiculturalism after 7/7. openDemocracy.
72. National Immigration Forum. (2021). The ‘great replacement’ theory, Explained. National Immigration Forum.
73. Ogan, C., Willnat, L., Pennington, R., & Bashir, M. (2014). The rise of anti-Muslim prejudice: Media and Islamophobia in Europe and the United States. The International Communication Gazette, 76(1). https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1748048513504048?journalCode=gazb
74. Otterbeck, J., & Bevelander, P. (2006). Islamofobi: En studie av begreppet, ungdomars attityder och unga muslimers utsatther. Forum FÖR Levande Historia.
75. Oxford English Dictionary. (2024a). Islamophobia, n. meanings, etymology and more. https://www-1oed-1com-10066f0lc00d4.erf.sbb.spk-berlin.de/dictionary/islamophobia_n
76. Oxford English Dictionary. (2024b). Islamophobic, adj. meanings, etymology and more. https://www-1oed-1com-10066f0lc092d.erf.sbb.spk-berlin.de/dictionary/islamophobic_adj
77. Oxford English Dictionary. (2024c). -phobia, comb. Form meanings, etymology and more. https://www.oed.com/dictionary/phobia_combform
78. Özarslan, S. (2023). Avrupa’da İslamofobi’nin tarihi kökleri ve güncel nedenleri. Akif, 53(1), Article 1. https://doi.org/10.51121/akif.2023.32
79. Özkan, S. H. (2023). Avrupa tarihi (2. bs). Ötüken Kitabevi. https://www.otuken.com.tr/avrupa-tarihi
80. Pattern of Prejudice. (2014). Imaginaries of the other: Past and present expression of Islamophobia. 48(5).
81. Perils of Perception - Perceptions Are Not Reality: What the World Gets Wrong. (2016, Aralık 19). IPSOS. https://www.ipsos.com/en/perils-perception-perceptions-are-not-reality-what-world-gets-wrong
82. Pew Research Center. (2011). The future of the global Muslim population. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/
83. Richardson, R. (2012). Islamophobia or anti-Muslim racism-or what?- Concepts And Terms Revisited. Insted Consultancy.
84. Runnymede on the Future of Multi-Ethnic Britain. (2000). The future of multi-ethnic Britain. Runnymede. https://www.runnymedetrust.org//publications/the-future-of-multi-ethnic-britain
85. Runnymede Trust Commission on Antisemitism. (1994). A very light sleeper. Runnymede. https://www.runnymedetrust.org//publications/very-light-sleeper
86. Said, E. W. (1985). Orientalism reconsidered. Cultural Critique, 1, 89-107. https://doi.org/10.2307/1354282
87. Sayyid, S. (2014). Recalling the caliphate: Decolonisation and world order. Hurst & Co.
88. Shryock, A. (2007). Islamophobia/Islamophilia: Beyond the politics of enemy and friend. Journal of the International Institute, 15(1). http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.4750978.0015.102
89. Singh, J. (2016, Şubat 23). The death of Islamophobia: The rise of Islamo-racism. https://www.racefiles.com/2016/02/23/the-death-of-islamophobia-the-rise-of-islamo-racism/
90. Şeker, G. (2022). İslamofobinin nedenleri ve Türkiye’ye yansıması üzerinden değerlendirilmesi. Uluborlu Mesleki Bilimler Dergisi, 6(1), 13-22.
91. Tavkhelidze, T. (2021). Historical origins of European Islamophobia. Journal of the Contemporary Study of Islam, 2(2), Article 2. https://doi.org/10.37264/jcsi.v2i2.64
92. Thatcher, M. (2002, Şubat 12). Islamism is the new bolshevism. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/feb/12/afghanistan.politics
93. Topçu, T. B. (2024). Batı dünyasında modernitenin dinamikleri. Bozok İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi, 1(1), 16-33.
94. Tuzcu, R. (2017). İslamofobi oluşturmada Hz. Peygamber’e yapılan atıflar. İlahiyat Akademi, 6, Article 6.
95. Türk Dil Kurumu. (2024). Türk Dil Kurumu sözlüğü. https://sozluk.gov.tr/
96. Tyerman, C. (2009). God’s war: A new history of the crusades. Belknap Press: An Imprint of Harvard University Press.
97. United Nations in Türkiye. (2023, Nisan 14). UN observes first International day against Islamophobia. https://turkiye.un.org/en/223089-un-observes-first-international-day-against-islamophobia, https://turkiye.un.org/en/223089-un-observes-first-international-day-against-islamophobia
98. Uzunçayır, C. (2021). Avrupa Aşırı Sağının Yerlici İdeolojisi: Antisemitizmden İslamofobi’ye. Muhafazakar Düşünce Dergisi, 17(60), Article 60.
99. Vakil, A. K. (2009). Is the Islam in Islamophobia the same as the Islam in anti-Islam; or, when is it Islamophobia time? E-Cadernos CES, 03, Article 03. https://doi.org/10.4000/eces.178
100. Wikipedia. (2024). Islamophobia. Içinde Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islamophobia&oldid=1262212997
101. Yıldız, Ş. (2023). İslamofobinin tarihi ve kültürel kökenleri. Balıkesir İlahiyat Dergisi, 17, Article 17.