Gerilla Hareketlerindeki Çoklu Erkeklikler: Kolombiya’daki M-19 Militanlarının Toplumsal Cinsiyet İlişkilerindeki Hegemonik Olan ve Olmayan Örüntüler

Öz

Bu makale militarist erkekliklerin direnişçi silahlı mücadele bağlamındaki oluşumunu ele almaktadır. Makale gerilla hareketlerinin çatışma ortamında faaliyet gösteren daimi ordulardan farklı bir toplumsal cinsiyet rejimi oluşturduğunu savunmaktadır. Toplumsal cinsiyet ilişkilerinin bu yeni konfigürasyonu, hiyerarşik cinsiyet ilişkilerini meşrulaştırmaktan kaçınan, alternatif ve hegemonik olmayan direnişçi erkekliklerin ve kadınlıkların oluşması anlamına gelir. Hegemonik erkeklikle ilgilenen araştırmacıların son dönemde yürüttükleri tartışmalara dayanan bu makalenin amacı, silahlı çatışma bağlamında görülen hegemonik olan ve olmayan pratikler arasında bir ayrım yapmaktır. Makale, Kolombiya’daki 19 Nisan Hareketi (M-19) (1974-1990) içindeki cinsiyet kurgularını ele alan ampirik bir araştırma vasıtasıyla, silahlı çatışma bağlamında ortaya çıkan hegemonik olmayan erkekliklerle ilgili cinsiyet perspektifli bilgi üretimine katkıda bulunmayı amaçlamaktadır. Üçü kadın, beşi erkek, sekiz eski M-19 militanıyla gerçekleştirilen adet yarı yapılandırılmış mülakatlara dayanan bu çalışma, hegemonik örüntülerin yanı sıra görülen hegemonik olmayan cinsiyet ilişkilerinin farkına dikkat çekecektir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Latin Amerika, Kolombiya, Movimiento 19 de Abril, gerilla, hegemonik erkeklikler, alternatif erkeklikler, direnişçi erkeklikler, direnişçi kadınlıklar

Multiple Masculinities In Guerrilla Movements: CoExistance Of Hegemonic And Non-Hegemonic Patterns In Gender Relations Among M-19 Militants In Colombia1

Abstract

This article engages with the constructions of militarised masculinities in the context of insurgent armed struggle. It argues that guerrilla movements organisations generate a different gender regime than standing armies operating in conflict contexts. This reconfiguration of gender relations amounts to alternative, non-hegemonic constructions of insurgent masculinities and femininities that refrain from legitimising hierarchical gender relations. Resorting to recent discussions among scholars engaging with hegemonic masculinity this article aims to disentangle hegemonic from non-hegemonic practices that circulate alongside in the context of insurgent armed struggle. It aims to further the gendered knowledge production on nonhegemonic masculinities in armed conflicts through an empirical exploration of gender constructions within the 19th of April Movement (M-19) in Colombia (1974-1990). Using eight semistructured interviews with former militants of the M-19 (three female and five male) conducted in the course of fieldwork in 2010 in Bogota this research will distinguish un-hegemonic patterns in gender relations that circulate alongside hegemonic patterns.

Keywords

• Latin America , Colombia , Movimiento 19 de Abril , guerrilla , hegemonic masculinities , alternative masculinities ,insurgent masculinities , Insurgent femininities

References

1. Apelt, Maja and Cordula Dittmer. “’Under pressure’ – Militärische Männlichkeiten im Zeichen neuer Kriege und veränderter Geschlechterverhältnisse.” Dimensionen der Kategorie Geschlecht: Der Fall Männlichkeit. Eds. Bereswill, Mechthild, Meuser, Michael and Scholz, Sylka. Münster: Westfälisches Dampfboot. 2007. 68-83. Print.
2. Barrett, Frank J. “The Organizational Construction of Hegemonic Masculinity: The Case of the US Navy.” The Masculinities Reader. Eds. Stephen M. Whitehead and Frank J. Barrett. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2001. 77-99. Print.
3. Bayard de Volo, Lorraine. “A Revolution in the Binary? Gender and the Oxymoron of Revolutionary War in Cuba and Nicaragua”. Signs 37.2, 2012: 413-439. Print.
4. Bernal, Victoria. “From Warriors to Wives: Contradictions of Liberation and Development in Eritrea.” Northeast African Studies. 8.3, 2001: 129-154. Print. Bevan, Mariann e, and Megan H. MacKenzie. “‘Cowboy’ Policing versus ‘the Softer Stuff’.” International Feminist Journal of Politics 14.4, 2012: 508-528. Print.
5. Beasley, Christine. “Rethinking Hegemonic Masculinity in a Globalizing World.” Men and Masculinities 11.1, 2008: 86-103. Print. Budgeon, Shelley. “Gender Hegemony: Femininities, Masculinities and Social Change.” Sociology 0.0, 2013: 1-18. Print.
6. Chernick, Marc. “Negotiating Peace amid Multiple Forms of Violence: The Protracted Search for a Settlement to the Armed Conflicts in Colombia.” Comparative Peace Processes in Latin America. Ed. Cynthia J. Arnson. Washington D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1999. 159-196. Print.
7. Cock, Jacklyn. Women and war in South Africa. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993. Print. Connell, Raewyn W. Masculinities. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995. Print
8. ---. Gender. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2002. Print. Connell Raewyn W. and James W. Messerschmidt. “Hegemonic Masculinity: Rethinking the Concept.” Gender and Society 19, 2005: 829-859. Print.

9. Dietrich Ortega, Luisa M. “Looking beyond violent militarized masculinities: Guerrilla Gender Regimes in Latin America.” Rethinking Masculinity and Men's Practices of Violence in Conflict Settings Spec. issue of International Feminist Journal of Politics 14.4, 2012: 489-507. Print.
10. Dietrich Ortega, Luisa M. “La ‘compañera política’: mujeres militantes y espacios de ‘agencia’ en insurgencias Latinoamericanas.” Colombia Internacional 80, 2014: 83-133. Print.
11. Garcia Duran, Mauricio, Vera Grabe Loewenherz, and Otty Patiño Hormaza. “The M-19’s Journey from Armed Struggle to Democratic Politics: Striving to Keep the Revolution Connected to the People”. Berlin: Berghof Center, 2008. Print.
12. Guaqueta, Alexandra. “The way back in: Reintegrating illegal armed groups in Colombia then and now.” Conflict, Security & Development 7.3, 2007: 417-456. Print.
13. Goldstein, Joshua. War and Gender: How Gender Shapes the International War System and Vice Verse. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2001. Print.
14. Goosses, Andreas. “La tierra gira masculinamente, Compañero: El Ideal de masculinidad del guerrillero.” Genero, feminismo y masculinidad en America Latina. Eds. Helfrich, Silke, and Marina, Sandoval. El Salvador: Ediciones Boll, 2001. 207–223. Print.
15. Joachim, Jutta, and Andrea Schneiker. “(Re)Masculinizing Security? Gender and Private Military and Security Companies.” Gender, Agency and Political Violence. Eds. Ahall, Linda and Shepherd, Laura J. London: Palgrave MacMillan, 2012. 39-54. Print.
16. Higate, Paul. “Drinking Vodka from the ‘Butt-Crack’.” International Feminist Journal of Politics 14.4, 2012: 450-469. Print.
17. Hooper, Charlotte. “Masculinist Practices and Gender Politics: Multiple Masculinities in International Relations.” The Man Question in International Relations. Eds. Zalewski, Marysia and Jane Parpart. 1998. Boulder, Colorado: Westview. 28-53. Print.
18. Londoño, Luz Maria, and Yoana F. Nieto. Mujeres no Contadas – Proceso de desmovilización y retorno a la vida civil de mujeres excombatientes en Colombia 1990-2003. Medellin: Editorial Universidad de Antioquia, 2006. Print.
19. M-19, Jaime Bateman: Un Profeta de la Paz. 1995 Web. 17 Dec. 2014. Madariaga, Patricia. “Yo estaba perdida y en el EME me encontré.” Controversia 187, 2006: 114-133. Print.
20. McKeown, Lawrence and Simona, Sharoni. Formations and Transformations of Masculinity in the North of Ireland and in Israel Palestine, 2002, Web. 17 Dec. 2014.
21. Messerschmidt, James W. “Engendering Gendered Knowledge: Assessing the Academic Appropriation of Hegemonic Masculinity.” Men and Masculinities 15.1, 2012: 56-76. Print.
22. Molyneux, Maxine. Women's movements in international perspective: Latin America and beyond. London: Institute of Latin American Studies and Palgrave Macmillan. 2001. Print.
23. Prieto Rozos, Alberto. Las guerrillas contemporaneas en America Latina. Mexico City: Ocean Sur. 2007. Print.
24. Sanchez-Blake, Elvira. La patria se escribe con Sangre. Bogota: Anthropos – Editorial del Hombre. 2000. Print.
25. Schippers, Mimi. “Recovering the feminine other: masculinity, femininity and gender hegemony.” Theory and Society 36, 2007: 85-102. Print.
26. Theidon, Kimberley. “Reconstructing Masculinities: The Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration of Former Combatants in Colombia.” Human Rights Quarterly 31.1, 2009: 1-34. Print.
27. Toro, Beatriz. 1994. La revolución o los hijos: mujeres y guerrilla, Unpublished Thesis, Bogota: Departamento de Antropología Universidad de los Andes. Print.
28. Withworth, Sandra. Men, Militarism and UN Peacekeeping: A Gendered Analysis. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers. 2004. Print.