Research Article
BibTex RIS Cite

Effect of Probiotics on Reproductive Performance of Fish

Year 2019, Volume: 4 Issue: 2, 153 - 162, 17.05.2019
https://doi.org/10.28978/nesciences.567113

Abstract

Probiotics are defined as live microorganisms which when administered in adequate amounts, confer a health benefit on the host. Nowadays, Probiotics are used for eco-friendly and sustainable production in many production areas. They have also been common organisms that used in aquaculture as growth promoter, stress tolerance, pathogen inhibition, and nutrient digestibility, to increase water quality. Probiotics use in aquaculture comprehensively reviewed as an alternative to antibiotic treatment. However, very few studies have addressed the effects of probiotics on reproductive performance and gamete quality of fish. Thus, this review summarizes most current studies on the effects of probiotics on reproductive performance and gamete quality in fish and evaluates further applications of probiotics in reproduction of fish.

References

  • Abasali, H., & Mohamad, S. (2010). Effect of dietary supplementation with probiotic on reproductive performance of female live bearing ornamental fish. Research Journal of Animal Sciences, 4(4), 103-107.
  • Ahmadnia-Motlagh, H., Hajimoradlo, A., Ghorbani, R., Agh, N., Safari, O., & Lashkarizadeh-Bami, M. (2017). Reproductive performance and intestinal bacterial changes of Carassius auratus fed supplemented lactoferrin and Lactobacillus rhamnosus PTCC 1637 diet. Iranian Journal of Ichthyology, 4(2), 150-161.
  • Ariole, C.N., & Okpokwasili, G.C. (2012). The effect of indigenous probiotics on egg hatchability and larval viability of Clarias gariepinus. Revista Ambiente & Água - An Interdisciplinary Journal of Applied Science, 7(1), 81-88. https://doi.org/ 10.4136/ambi-agua.712.
  • Bromage, N.R. (1995). Broodstock management and seed quality- General considerations. In: (Bromage, N.R and Roberts,R.J). Broodstock Management and Egg and Larval Quality. (pp. 1-25). Blackwell Science. First Publication.
  • Carnevali, O., Avella, M.A., & Gioacchini, G. (2013). Effect of probiotic administration on zebrafish development and reproduction. General and Comparative Endocrinology, 188, 297–302.
  • Carnevali, O., Maradonna, F., & Gioacchini, G. (2017). Integrated control of fish metabolism, wellbeing and reproduction: the role of probiotic. Aquaculture, 472, 144–155. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2016.03.037.
  • Chandrakala, N., & Soundharanayaki, G. (2017). Role of probiotics in aquaculture- a review. International Journal of Current Innovation Research, 3(2), 577-582.
  • Cienfuegos, M. K., Monroy Dosta, M. C., Hamdan Partida, A., Castro, M. J., Aguirre Garrido, J.F., & Bustos, M.J.A. (2018). Effect of two probiotics on bacterial community composition from biofloc system and their impact on survival and growth of tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). International Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Studies, 6(2), 525-533.
  • Dash, P., Tandel, R.S., Bhat, R.A.H., Mallik, S., Pandey, N.N., Singh, A.K., & Sarma, D. (2018). The addition of probiotic bacteria to microbial floc: Water quality, growth, non-specific immune response and disease resistance of Cyprinus carpio in mid-Himalayan altitude. Aquaculture, 495, 961–969. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2018.06.056.
  • Egerton, S., Culloty, S., Whooley, J., Stanton, C., & Ross, R.P. (2018). The Gut Microbiota of Marine Fish. Frontiers in Microbiology, 9, 873. https://doi.org/ 10.3389/fmicb.2018.00873.
  • EL-Haroun, E.R., A-S Goda, A.M., & Kabir Chowdhury, M.A. (2006). Effect of dietary probiotic Biogens supplementation as a growth promoter on growth performance and feed utilization of Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus (L.) Aquaculture Research, 37, 1473-1480.
  • Gatesoupe, F.J (1994). Lactic acid bacteria increase the resistance of turbot larvae, Scophthalmus maximus, against pathogenic vibrio. Aquatic Living Resources, 7, 277–282.
  • Ghosh, S., Sinha, A., & Sahu, C. (2007). Effect of probiotic on reproductive performance in female livebearing ornamental fish. Aquaculture Research, 38, 518-526. Giannenas, I., Karamaligas, I., Margaroni, M., Pappas, I., Mayer, E., Encarnaçao, P., & Karagouni, E. (2015). Effect of dietary incorporation of a multi-strain probiotic on growth performance and health status in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Fish Physiology and Biochemistry, 41(1), 119–128. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10695-014-0010-0.
  • Gioacchini, G., Maradonna, F., Lombardo, F., Bizzaro, D., Olivotto, I., & Carnevali, C., (2010a). Increase of fecundity by probiotic administration in zebrafish (Danio rerio). Reproduction, 140(6), 953–959. https://doi.org/10.1530/REP-10-0145.
  • Gioacchini, G., Bizzaro, D., Giorgini, E., Ferraris, P., Sabbatini, S., & Carnevali, O. (2010b). Oocytes maturation induction by Lactobacillus rhamnosus in Danio rerio: in vivo and in vitro studies. Human Reproduction. 25, i205–i206.
  • Gioacchini, G., Giorgini, E., Ferraris, P., Tosi, G., Bizzarro, D., Silvi, S., & Carnevali, O. (2010c). Could probiotics improve fecundity? Danio rerio as case of study. Journal of Biotechnology, 150, 59–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiotec.2010.08.156.
  • Gioacchini, G., Lombardo, F., Merrifield, D.L., Silvi, S., Cresci, A., Avella, M.A., & Carnevali, O. 2011. Effects of probiotic on zebrafish reproduction. Journal of Aquaculture Research and Development, S1.002. http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2155-9546, S1–002.
  • Gioacchini, G., Giorgini, E., Merrifield, D.L., Hardiman, G., Borini, A., Vaccari, L., & Carnevali, O. (2012). Probiotics can induce follicle maturational competence: the Danio rerio case. Biology of Reproduction, 86(3), 65-75. https://doi.org/10.1095/biolreprod.111.094243.
  • Gioacchini, G., Dalla Valle, L., Benato, F., Fimia, G.M., Nardacci, R., Ciccosanti, F., Piacentini, M., Borini, A., & Carnevali, O. (2013). Interplay between autophagy and apoptosis in the development of Danio rerio follicles and the effects of a probiotic. Reproduction, Fertility and Development, 25(8), 1115-1125. https://doi.org/10.1071/RD12187
  • Gioacchini, G., Giorgini, E., Vaccari, L., & Carnevali, O. (2014). Can probiotics affect reproductive processes of aquatic animals? In: Merrifield, D., Ringø, E. (Eds.), Aquaculture Nutrition: Gut Health, Probiotics and Prebiotics. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, Chichester, pp. 75-100.UK. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118897263.ch12
  • Giorgini, E., Conti, C., Ferraris, P., Sabbatini, S., Tosi, G., Rubini, C., Vaccari, L., Gioacchini, G., & Carnevali, O. (2010). Effects of Lactobacillus rhamnosus on zebrafish oocyte maturation: an FTIR imaging and biochemical analysis. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, 398(7-8), 3063–3072. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00216-010-4234-2.
  • Goda, A.M., Omar, E.A., Srour, T.M., Kotiet, A.M., El-Haroun, E., & Davies, S.J. (2018). Effect of diets supplemented with feed additives on growth, feed utilization, survival, body composition and intestinal bacterial load of early weaning European seabass, Dicentrarchus labrax post-larvae. Aquaculture International, 26(1), 169–183. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10499-017-0200-8.
  • Kasmani, F.B., Karimi Torshizi, M.A.K., & Mehri, M. (2018). Effect of Brevibacillus laterosporus Probiotic on Hematology, Internal Organs, Meat Peroxidation and Ileal Microflora in Japanese Quails Fed Aflatoxin B1. Journal of Agricultural Science Technology, 20(3), 459-468.
  • Mehdinejad, N., Imanpour, M.R., & Jafari, V. (2018). Combined or individual effects of dietary probiotic, Pediococcus acidilactici and nucleotide on reproductive performance in goldfish (Carassius auratus). Probiotics and Antimicrobial Proteins, 1-8, http://doi.org/10.1007/s12602-017-9297-3.
  • Mehrabi, F., Khalesi, M., & Kaivan, H. (2018). Effects of pre- and probiotics on growth, survival, body composition, and hematology of common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) fry from the Caspian Sea. Turkish Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 18, 597-602. http://doi.org/10.4194/1303-2712-v18_4_11.
  • Miccoli, A., Gioacchini, G., Maradonna, F., Benato, F., Skobo, T., & Carnevali, O. (2015). Beneficial bacteria affect Danio rerio development by the modulation of maternal factors involved in autophagic, apoptotic and dorsalizing processes. Cellular Physiolology Biochemistry, 35(5), 1706-18. http://doi.org/10.1159/000373983.
  • Nayak, S.K. (2010). Probiotics and immunity: a fish perspective. Fish Shellfish Immunology, 29(1), 2–14. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsi.2010.02.017.
  • Planas, M., Perez-Lorenzo, M., Hjelm, M., Gram, L., Fiksdal, I.U., Bergh, O., & Pintado, J. (2006). Probiotic effect in vivo of Roseobacter strain 27-4 against Vibrio (Listonella) anguillarum infections in turbot (Scophthalmus maximus L.) larvae. Aquaculture 255(1-4), 323-333.
  • Rahman, M.L., Akhter, S., Mallik, Md K.M., & Rashid, I. (2018). Probiotic enrich dietary effect on the reproduction of butter catfish, Ompok pabda (Hamilton, 1872). International Journal of Current Research in Life Sciences, 7(2), 866-873. ISSN: 2319-9490.
  • Sharifuzzaman, S.M., & Austin, B. (2017). “Probiotics for Disease Control in Aquaculture Shellfish, 1st,” in Diagnosis and Control of Diseases of Fish and Shellfish, edition., B. Austin, and A. Newaj-Fyzul, Eds., (pp. 189–222). Wiley & Sons, Ltd, Oxford, 1st edition.
  • Valcarce, D.G., Pardo, M.Á., Riesco, M.F., Cruz, Z., & Robles, V. (2015). Effect of diet supplementation with a commercial probiotic containing Pediococcus acidilactici (Lindner, 1887) on the expression of five quality markers in zebrafish (Danio rerio (Hamilton, 1822)) testis. Journal of Applied Icthyology, 31(1), 18-21.
  • Vílchez, M.C., Santangeli, S., Maradonna, F., Gioacchini, G., Verdenelli, C., Gallego, V., Peñaranda, D.S., Tveiten, H., Pérez, L., Carnevali, O., & Asturiano, J.F. (2015). Effect of the probiotic Lactobacillus rhamnosus on the expression of genes involved in European eel spermatogenesis. Theriogenology, 84(8), 1321–1331. http://doi. org/10.1016/j.theriogenology.2015.07.011.
  • Watanabe, T., & Kiron, V. (1995). Broodstock management and nutritional approaches for quality offsprings in the Red Sea Bream. In: Bromage, N.R., Roberts, R.J. Eds., Broodstock Management and Egg and Larval Quality. (pp. 154-195). Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, First Publication.
  • Who & Fao. (2006). Probiotics in Food: Health and Nutritional Properties and Guidelines for Evaluation. Food and Nutrition paper 85.Rome: FAO.
  • Yin, Y., Mu, D., Chen, S., Liu, L., & Wang, Z. (2011). Effects on growth and digestive enzyme activities of the Hepialus gonggaensis larvae caused by introducing probiotics. World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology, 27(3), 529–533. http://doi. org/10.1007/s11274-010-0486-4
  • Zapata, A.A., & Lara-Flores, M. (2013). Antimicrobial activities of lactic acid bacteria strains isolated from Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) intestine. Journal of Biology and Life Science, 4(1), 123–129.
Year 2019, Volume: 4 Issue: 2, 153 - 162, 17.05.2019
https://doi.org/10.28978/nesciences.567113

Abstract

References

  • Abasali, H., & Mohamad, S. (2010). Effect of dietary supplementation with probiotic on reproductive performance of female live bearing ornamental fish. Research Journal of Animal Sciences, 4(4), 103-107.
  • Ahmadnia-Motlagh, H., Hajimoradlo, A., Ghorbani, R., Agh, N., Safari, O., & Lashkarizadeh-Bami, M. (2017). Reproductive performance and intestinal bacterial changes of Carassius auratus fed supplemented lactoferrin and Lactobacillus rhamnosus PTCC 1637 diet. Iranian Journal of Ichthyology, 4(2), 150-161.
  • Ariole, C.N., & Okpokwasili, G.C. (2012). The effect of indigenous probiotics on egg hatchability and larval viability of Clarias gariepinus. Revista Ambiente & Água - An Interdisciplinary Journal of Applied Science, 7(1), 81-88. https://doi.org/ 10.4136/ambi-agua.712.
  • Bromage, N.R. (1995). Broodstock management and seed quality- General considerations. In: (Bromage, N.R and Roberts,R.J). Broodstock Management and Egg and Larval Quality. (pp. 1-25). Blackwell Science. First Publication.
  • Carnevali, O., Avella, M.A., & Gioacchini, G. (2013). Effect of probiotic administration on zebrafish development and reproduction. General and Comparative Endocrinology, 188, 297–302.
  • Carnevali, O., Maradonna, F., & Gioacchini, G. (2017). Integrated control of fish metabolism, wellbeing and reproduction: the role of probiotic. Aquaculture, 472, 144–155. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2016.03.037.
  • Chandrakala, N., & Soundharanayaki, G. (2017). Role of probiotics in aquaculture- a review. International Journal of Current Innovation Research, 3(2), 577-582.
  • Cienfuegos, M. K., Monroy Dosta, M. C., Hamdan Partida, A., Castro, M. J., Aguirre Garrido, J.F., & Bustos, M.J.A. (2018). Effect of two probiotics on bacterial community composition from biofloc system and their impact on survival and growth of tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). International Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Studies, 6(2), 525-533.
  • Dash, P., Tandel, R.S., Bhat, R.A.H., Mallik, S., Pandey, N.N., Singh, A.K., & Sarma, D. (2018). The addition of probiotic bacteria to microbial floc: Water quality, growth, non-specific immune response and disease resistance of Cyprinus carpio in mid-Himalayan altitude. Aquaculture, 495, 961–969. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2018.06.056.
  • Egerton, S., Culloty, S., Whooley, J., Stanton, C., & Ross, R.P. (2018). The Gut Microbiota of Marine Fish. Frontiers in Microbiology, 9, 873. https://doi.org/ 10.3389/fmicb.2018.00873.
  • EL-Haroun, E.R., A-S Goda, A.M., & Kabir Chowdhury, M.A. (2006). Effect of dietary probiotic Biogens supplementation as a growth promoter on growth performance and feed utilization of Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus (L.) Aquaculture Research, 37, 1473-1480.
  • Gatesoupe, F.J (1994). Lactic acid bacteria increase the resistance of turbot larvae, Scophthalmus maximus, against pathogenic vibrio. Aquatic Living Resources, 7, 277–282.
  • Ghosh, S., Sinha, A., & Sahu, C. (2007). Effect of probiotic on reproductive performance in female livebearing ornamental fish. Aquaculture Research, 38, 518-526. Giannenas, I., Karamaligas, I., Margaroni, M., Pappas, I., Mayer, E., Encarnaçao, P., & Karagouni, E. (2015). Effect of dietary incorporation of a multi-strain probiotic on growth performance and health status in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Fish Physiology and Biochemistry, 41(1), 119–128. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10695-014-0010-0.
  • Gioacchini, G., Maradonna, F., Lombardo, F., Bizzaro, D., Olivotto, I., & Carnevali, C., (2010a). Increase of fecundity by probiotic administration in zebrafish (Danio rerio). Reproduction, 140(6), 953–959. https://doi.org/10.1530/REP-10-0145.
  • Gioacchini, G., Bizzaro, D., Giorgini, E., Ferraris, P., Sabbatini, S., & Carnevali, O. (2010b). Oocytes maturation induction by Lactobacillus rhamnosus in Danio rerio: in vivo and in vitro studies. Human Reproduction. 25, i205–i206.
  • Gioacchini, G., Giorgini, E., Ferraris, P., Tosi, G., Bizzarro, D., Silvi, S., & Carnevali, O. (2010c). Could probiotics improve fecundity? Danio rerio as case of study. Journal of Biotechnology, 150, 59–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiotec.2010.08.156.
  • Gioacchini, G., Lombardo, F., Merrifield, D.L., Silvi, S., Cresci, A., Avella, M.A., & Carnevali, O. 2011. Effects of probiotic on zebrafish reproduction. Journal of Aquaculture Research and Development, S1.002. http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2155-9546, S1–002.
  • Gioacchini, G., Giorgini, E., Merrifield, D.L., Hardiman, G., Borini, A., Vaccari, L., & Carnevali, O. (2012). Probiotics can induce follicle maturational competence: the Danio rerio case. Biology of Reproduction, 86(3), 65-75. https://doi.org/10.1095/biolreprod.111.094243.
  • Gioacchini, G., Dalla Valle, L., Benato, F., Fimia, G.M., Nardacci, R., Ciccosanti, F., Piacentini, M., Borini, A., & Carnevali, O. (2013). Interplay between autophagy and apoptosis in the development of Danio rerio follicles and the effects of a probiotic. Reproduction, Fertility and Development, 25(8), 1115-1125. https://doi.org/10.1071/RD12187
  • Gioacchini, G., Giorgini, E., Vaccari, L., & Carnevali, O. (2014). Can probiotics affect reproductive processes of aquatic animals? In: Merrifield, D., Ringø, E. (Eds.), Aquaculture Nutrition: Gut Health, Probiotics and Prebiotics. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, Chichester, pp. 75-100.UK. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118897263.ch12
  • Giorgini, E., Conti, C., Ferraris, P., Sabbatini, S., Tosi, G., Rubini, C., Vaccari, L., Gioacchini, G., & Carnevali, O. (2010). Effects of Lactobacillus rhamnosus on zebrafish oocyte maturation: an FTIR imaging and biochemical analysis. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, 398(7-8), 3063–3072. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00216-010-4234-2.
  • Goda, A.M., Omar, E.A., Srour, T.M., Kotiet, A.M., El-Haroun, E., & Davies, S.J. (2018). Effect of diets supplemented with feed additives on growth, feed utilization, survival, body composition and intestinal bacterial load of early weaning European seabass, Dicentrarchus labrax post-larvae. Aquaculture International, 26(1), 169–183. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10499-017-0200-8.
  • Kasmani, F.B., Karimi Torshizi, M.A.K., & Mehri, M. (2018). Effect of Brevibacillus laterosporus Probiotic on Hematology, Internal Organs, Meat Peroxidation and Ileal Microflora in Japanese Quails Fed Aflatoxin B1. Journal of Agricultural Science Technology, 20(3), 459-468.
  • Mehdinejad, N., Imanpour, M.R., & Jafari, V. (2018). Combined or individual effects of dietary probiotic, Pediococcus acidilactici and nucleotide on reproductive performance in goldfish (Carassius auratus). Probiotics and Antimicrobial Proteins, 1-8, http://doi.org/10.1007/s12602-017-9297-3.
  • Mehrabi, F., Khalesi, M., & Kaivan, H. (2018). Effects of pre- and probiotics on growth, survival, body composition, and hematology of common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) fry from the Caspian Sea. Turkish Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 18, 597-602. http://doi.org/10.4194/1303-2712-v18_4_11.
  • Miccoli, A., Gioacchini, G., Maradonna, F., Benato, F., Skobo, T., & Carnevali, O. (2015). Beneficial bacteria affect Danio rerio development by the modulation of maternal factors involved in autophagic, apoptotic and dorsalizing processes. Cellular Physiolology Biochemistry, 35(5), 1706-18. http://doi.org/10.1159/000373983.
  • Nayak, S.K. (2010). Probiotics and immunity: a fish perspective. Fish Shellfish Immunology, 29(1), 2–14. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsi.2010.02.017.
  • Planas, M., Perez-Lorenzo, M., Hjelm, M., Gram, L., Fiksdal, I.U., Bergh, O., & Pintado, J. (2006). Probiotic effect in vivo of Roseobacter strain 27-4 against Vibrio (Listonella) anguillarum infections in turbot (Scophthalmus maximus L.) larvae. Aquaculture 255(1-4), 323-333.
  • Rahman, M.L., Akhter, S., Mallik, Md K.M., & Rashid, I. (2018). Probiotic enrich dietary effect on the reproduction of butter catfish, Ompok pabda (Hamilton, 1872). International Journal of Current Research in Life Sciences, 7(2), 866-873. ISSN: 2319-9490.
  • Sharifuzzaman, S.M., & Austin, B. (2017). “Probiotics for Disease Control in Aquaculture Shellfish, 1st,” in Diagnosis and Control of Diseases of Fish and Shellfish, edition., B. Austin, and A. Newaj-Fyzul, Eds., (pp. 189–222). Wiley & Sons, Ltd, Oxford, 1st edition.
  • Valcarce, D.G., Pardo, M.Á., Riesco, M.F., Cruz, Z., & Robles, V. (2015). Effect of diet supplementation with a commercial probiotic containing Pediococcus acidilactici (Lindner, 1887) on the expression of five quality markers in zebrafish (Danio rerio (Hamilton, 1822)) testis. Journal of Applied Icthyology, 31(1), 18-21.
  • Vílchez, M.C., Santangeli, S., Maradonna, F., Gioacchini, G., Verdenelli, C., Gallego, V., Peñaranda, D.S., Tveiten, H., Pérez, L., Carnevali, O., & Asturiano, J.F. (2015). Effect of the probiotic Lactobacillus rhamnosus on the expression of genes involved in European eel spermatogenesis. Theriogenology, 84(8), 1321–1331. http://doi. org/10.1016/j.theriogenology.2015.07.011.
  • Watanabe, T., & Kiron, V. (1995). Broodstock management and nutritional approaches for quality offsprings in the Red Sea Bream. In: Bromage, N.R., Roberts, R.J. Eds., Broodstock Management and Egg and Larval Quality. (pp. 154-195). Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, First Publication.
  • Who & Fao. (2006). Probiotics in Food: Health and Nutritional Properties and Guidelines for Evaluation. Food and Nutrition paper 85.Rome: FAO.
  • Yin, Y., Mu, D., Chen, S., Liu, L., & Wang, Z. (2011). Effects on growth and digestive enzyme activities of the Hepialus gonggaensis larvae caused by introducing probiotics. World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology, 27(3), 529–533. http://doi. org/10.1007/s11274-010-0486-4
  • Zapata, A.A., & Lara-Flores, M. (2013). Antimicrobial activities of lactic acid bacteria strains isolated from Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) intestine. Journal of Biology and Life Science, 4(1), 123–129.
There are 36 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language English
Subjects Hydrobiology
Journal Section 4
Authors

Fatmagün Aydın

Şehriban Çek-yalnız This is me

Publication Date May 17, 2019
Submission Date October 30, 2018
Published in Issue Year 2019 Volume: 4 Issue: 2

Cite

APA Aydın, F., & Çek-yalnız, Ş. (2019). Effect of Probiotics on Reproductive Performance of Fish. Natural and Engineering Sciences, 4(2), 153-162. https://doi.org/10.28978/nesciences.567113

                                                                                               We welcome all your submissions

                                                                                                             Warm regards,
                                                                                                      


All published work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Link . Creative Commons License
                                                                                         NESciences.com © 2015