Largactil As an Antidote to Organophosphorus Pesticide Poisoning in Local Doves

Year 2025, Volume: 10 Issue: 2, 373 - 382, 01.09.2025

Ashraf Saddiek Alias

https://doi.org/10.28978/nesciences.1706372

Abstract

Many organophosphorus compounds are toxic compounds that are harmful to humans, animals, and the surrounding environment. To treat the toxicity of these compounds, researchers use another compound as an antidote for cholinergic toxicity, that is, Largactil. Largactil is a kind of phenothiazine that contains the active ingredient chlorpromazine hydrochloride, which is used as an anticholinergic, antihistamine, and analgesic. This study aims to use Largactil as an alternative to atropine in the treatment of poisoning of collared doves exposed to organophosphorus insecticide (dichlorvos). This study is based on a sample of thirty birds (collared doves) divided into three groups of ten birds each. The control group (Group 1) received a dose of dichlorvos, followed by 2 ml/kg of saline solution administered intraperitoneally. Group 2 and Group 3 are treatment groups that were given atropine and Largactil, respectively and separately, in addition to dichlorvos. The oral median lethal doses (LD50) of dichlorvos alone or with atropine and Largactil in doves were determined by the up-and-down method for acute toxicity testing. The results showed that the oral LD50 of dichlorvos with intraperitoneal atropine increased by 30.845 mg/kg, with a protective ratio of 1.47 (Group 2), while an increase in the oral LD50 for Largactil ranged from 21.0 mg/kg to 55.7 mg/kg, with a protective ratio of 2.65 (Group 3). Largactil significantly reduced the signs of toxicity and decreased the overall toxicity score of the birds more than atropine. These results indicate that Largactil has better protective and mitigating effects than atropine in the treatment of acute organophosphorus pesticide poisoning in birds.

Keywords

Largactil , Anti-poisoning , Organophosphorus , Insecticide , Atropine

References

• Al-Baggou, Banan K., Ahmed S. Naser, & Fouad K. Mohammad. Hydrogen peroxide potentiates organophosphate toxicosis in chicks. Human and Veterinary Medicine 3, no. 2 (2011): 142-149.
• Ali, M. J., Karawan, A. C., Al-Fetly, D. R., & Alfatlawi, M. A. (2020). Synergizing the deltamethrin larvicidal activity against Aedes albopictus larvae using cinnamaldehyde in Diwaniyah, Iraq. 10.33899/ijvs.2019.126026.1212
• Alias, A. S. (2009). The use of an electrometric method for measurement of cholinesterase activity in plasma and tissues of local doves.
• Alias, A. S., & Mohammad, F. K. (2005). Electrometric measurement of plasma and tissue cholinesterase activities of four wild birds in Iraq. J Biol Res, 4, 197-202.
• Al-Zubaidy, M. H. I., & Mohammad, F. K. (2007). Metoclopramide protection of diazinon-induced toxicosis in chickens. Journal of veterinary science, 8(3), 249.
• Aroniadou-Anderjaska, V., Figueiredo, T. H., de Araujo Furtado, M., Pidoplichko, V. I., & Braga, M. F. (2023). Mechanisms of organophosphate toxicity and the role of acetylcholinesterase inhibition. Toxics, 11(10), 866. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11100866
• Ashraf, S. Measuring of cholinesterase activity via electrometric method in blood and tissues of budgie bird’s. Veterinary Practitioner 21 (2020).
• Bajgar, J. (2004). Organophosphates/nerve agent poisoning: mechanism of action, diagnosis, prophylaxis, and treatment. Advances in clinical chemistry, 38, 151-216.
• Caner, A., Ali, M., Yıldız, A., & Hanım, E. (2025). Improvements in environmental monitoring in IoT networks through sensor fusion techniques. Journal of Wireless Sensor Networks and IoT, 2(2), 38-44.
• Consumer Medicine Information (CMI) (2023) Largactil®, https://www.medsafe.govt.nz/consumers/cmi/l/largactil.pdf.
• Dixon, W. J. (1980). Efficient analysis of experimental observations. Annual review of pharmacology and toxicology, 20(1), 441-462. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.pa.20.040180.002301
• Eddleston, M., Buckley, N. A., Eyer, P., & Dawson, A. H. (2008). Management of acute organophosphorus pesticide poisoning. The Lancet, 371(9612), 597-607.
• Farajizadeh, M., & Bakhsh, N. N. (2015). A mechanism to improve the throughput of cloud computing environments using congestion control. International Academic Journal of Science and Engineering, 2(1), 97-111.
• Jaga, K., & Dharmani, C. (2003). Sources of exposure to and public health implications of organophosphate pesticides. Revista panamericana de salud pública, 14, 171-185.
• Jain, R., Jain, B., Chauhan, V., Deswal, B., Kaur, S., Sharma, S., & Abourehab, M. A. (2023). Simple determination of dichlorvos in cases of fatal intoxication by gas Chromatography-Mass spectrometry. Journal of Chromatography B, 1215, 123582.
• Juza, R., Musilek, K., Mezeiova, E., Soukup, O., & Korabecny, J. (2023). Recent advances in dopamine D2 receptor ligands in the treatment of neuropsychiatric disorders. Medicinal Research Reviews, 43(1), 55-211. https://doi.org/10.1002/med.21923
• Mohammad, F. K., Al-Badrany, Y. M., & Al-Jobory, M. M. (2008). Acute toxicity and cholinesterase inhibition in chicks dosed orally with organophosphate insecticides. Arhiv Za higijenu rada i toksikologiju, 59(3), 145.
• Mohammad, F. K., Alias, A. S., Faris, G. M., & Al‐Baggou, B. K. (2007). Application of an electrometric method for measurement of blood cholinesterase activities in sheep, goats and cattle treated with organophosphate insecticides. Journal of Veterinary Medicine Series A, 54(3), 140-143. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0442.2007.00867.x
• Mohammad, F. K., Mousa, Y. J., Al-Zubaidy, M. H., & Alias, A. S. (2012). Assessment of diphenhydramine effects against acute poisoning induced by the organophosphate insecticide dichlorvos in chicks. Human and Veterinary Medicine, 4(1), 6-13.
• Mustafa, K. A., & Al-Baggou, B. K. (2020). Toxicological and neurobehavioral effects of chlorpyrifos and deltamethrin insecticides in mice.
• Ogutcu, A., Suludere, Z., & Kalender, Y. (2008). Dichlorvos-induced hepatotoxicity in rats and the protective effects of vitamins C and E. Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology, 26(3), 355-361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.etap.2008.07.005
• Oliva, C. R., Zhang, W., Langford, C., Suto, M. J., & Griguer, C. E. (2017). Repositioning chlorpromazine for treating chemoresistant glioma through the inhibition of cytochrome c oxidase bearing the COX4-1 regulatory subunit. Oncotarget, 8(23), 37568. https://doi.org/10.18632/oncotarget.17247
• Peng, J., Zhang, Y., Ling, Q., Zhu, L., & Yao, H. (2024). Case Report of overlapping pyloric obstruction due to dichlorvos poisoning and cholelithiasis with choledocholithiasis. The American Journal of Case Reports, 25, e943101-1. https://doi.org/10.12659/AJCR.943101
• Petrie, A., & Watson, P. (2013). Statistics for veterinary and animal science. John Wiley & Sons.
• Pushpavalli, R., Mageshvaran, K., Anbarasu, N., & Chandru, B. (2024). Smart sensor infrastructure for environmental air quality monitoring. International Journal of Communication and Computer Technologies (IJCCTS), 12(1), 33-37.
• Ranjan, A., & Jindal, T. (2022). Toxicology of organophosphate poisoning. Springer International Publishing.
• Robb, E. L., Regina, A. C., & Baker, M. B. (2017). Organophosphate toxicity.
• Runyon RP (1977) Nonparametric statistics. Addison Wesley, Reading, MA, USA.
• Rusyniak, D. E., & Nañagas, K. A. (2004, June). Organophosphate poisoning. In Seminars in neurology (Vol. 24, No. 02, pp. 197-204). Copyright© 2004 by Thieme Medical Publishers, Inc., 333 Seventh Avenue, New York, NY 10001, USA. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2004-830907
• Salem, I. B., Boussabbeh, M., Bacha, H., & Abid, S. (2015). Dichlorvos-induced toxicity in HCT116 cells: involvement of oxidative stress and apoptosis. Pesticide biochemistry and physiology, 119, 62-66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pestbp.2015.02.004
• Salem, Intidhar Ben, Manel Boussabbeh, Julie Pires Da Silva, Nour Elhouda Saidi, Salwa Abid-Essefi, and Christophe Lemaire. "Effects of Dichlorvos on cardiac cells: Toxicity and molecular mechanism of action." Chemosphere 330 (2023): 138714. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.138714
• Sethi, K., & Jain, R. (2024). Smart Grid Technologies and Renewable Integration: Contributions to the Periodic Series in Electrical and Environmental Innovation. In Smart Grid Integration (pp. 26-32). Periodic Series in Multidisciplinary Studies.
• Sinha, J. K., Sachdeva, P., Ahmad, F., Sarkar, J., Izhar, R., Rahman, A., & Ghosh, S. (2023). Pharmacotherapy and emerging treatment strategies for schizophrenia. In Cognizance of Schizophrenia: A Profound Insight into the Psyche (pp. 149-179). Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore.
• Syed, S., Gurcoo, S. A., Farooqui, A. K., Nisa, W., Sofi, K., & Wani, T. M. (2015). Is the World Health Organization-recommended dose of pralidoxime effective in the treatment of organophosphorus poisoning? A randomized, double-blinded and placebo-controlled trial. Saudi journal of anaesthesia, 9(1), 49-54. https://doi.org/10.4103/1658-354X.146306
• Thevenon, P. H., Riou, S., Tran, D. M., Puys, M., Polychronou, N., El Majihi, M., & Sivelle, C. (2022). iMRC: Integrated monitoring & recovery component, a solution to guarantee the security of embedded systems. Journal of Internet Services and Information Security, 12(2), 1-24.
• Wilson BW (2005) Cholinesterase inhibition, in: Wexler, P. (ed), Encyclopedia of toxicology, Vol. 1, 2nd edition, Elsevier, New York, NY, USA. 588-599.
• Worek, F., Koller, M., Thiermann, H., & Szinicz, L. (2005). Diagnostic aspects of organophosphate poisoning. Toxicology, 214(3), 182-189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tox.2005.06.012
• Yürümez, Y., Yavuz, Y., Şahin, Ö., Çiftçi, İ. H., Özkan, S., & Büyükokuroğlu, M. E. (2007). Can diphenhydramine prevent organophosphate-induced acute pancreatitis? An experimental study in rats. Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology, 87(3), 271-275.