AN OVERVIEW OF NANOTOXICOLOGY
Year 2017,
Volume: 12 Issue: 1, 57 - 65, 09.01.2017
HANDE Sezgin
,
İPEK Yalçın Eniş
,
MERVE Küçükali Öztürk
,
EZGİ İşmar
Abstract
Nanotechnology grows
rapidly and has potential applications in many areas such as industry,
agriculture, business, medicine etc. Since nanomaterials are used in daily life
activities nowadays, research on the toxicity of nanoparticles gains more
importance. Nanoparticles (NPs) have been studied for cell toxicity, immunotoxicity,
and genotoxicity. This review reports a summary of recent researches on the
toxicity of nanomaterials having different classes: metals and non-metals.
References
- 1. Buzea, C., Pacheco, I.I. and Robbie, K., (2007). Nanomaterials and Nanoparticles: Sources and Toxicity. Biointerphases, Volume:2, Issue:4, pp: 17-71.
- 2. Merwe, D.V.D. and Pickrell, J.A., (2012). Toxicity of Nanomaterials. In “Veterinary Toxicology: Basic and Clinical Principles”, Eds. Ramesh C. Gupta, Elsevier, pp: 383-390.
- 3. Marambio-Jones, C. and Hoek, E.M.V., (2010). A Review of the Antibacterial Effects of Silver Nanomaterials and Potential Implications for Human Health and the Environment. Journal of Nanoparticle Research, Volume:12, Issue:5, pp:1531–1551.
- 4. Sharifi, S., Behzadi, S., Laurent, S., Forrest, M.L., Stroeve, P. and Mahmoudi, M., (2012). Toxicity of Nanomaterials. Chemical Society Reviews, Volume:418, Issue:6, pp:2323–2343.
- 5. Yildirimer, L., Thanh, N.T.K., Loizidou, M. and Seifalian A.M., (2011). Toxicological Considerations of Clinically Applicable Nanoparticles. Nano Today, Volume:6, pp:585-607.
- 6. Clichici, S. and Filip, A., (2015). In vivo Assessment of Nanomaterials Toxicity, Nanomaterials-Toxicity and Risk Assessment, pp:93-121.
- 7. Pourmand, A. and Abdollahi, M., (2012). Current Opinion on Nanotoxicology. DARU Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Volume:20, Issue:95, pp::1-3.
- 8. Bahadar, H., Maqbool, F., Niaz, K. and Abdollahi, M., (2016). Toxicity of Nanoparticles and an Overview of Current Experimental Models. Iranian Biomedical Journal, Volume:20, Issue:1, pp:1-11.
- 9. Balasubramanyam, A., Sailaja, N., Mahboob, M., Rahman, M.F., Hussain, S.M. and Grover, P., (2009). In vivo Genotoxicity Assessment of Aluminium Oxide Nanomaterials in Rat Peripheral Blood Cells Using the Comet Assay and Micronucleus Test. Mutagenesis, Volume:24, Issue:3, pp:245-251.
- 10. De Jong, W.H. and Borm, P.J., (2008). Drug Delivery and Nanoparticles: Applications and Hazards. International Journal of Nanomedicine, Volume:3, Issue:2, pp:133-149.
- 11. Park, E.J., Lee, G.H., Yoon, C., Jeong, U., Kim, Y., Cho, M.H. and Kim, D.W., (2016). Biodistribution and Toxicity of Spherical Aluminium Oxide Nanoparticles. Journal of Applied Toxicology, Volume:36, pp:424–433.
- 12. Arul Prakash, F., Dushendra Babu, G.J., Lavanya, M., Shenbaga Vidhya, K. and Devasena, T., (2011). Toxicity Studies of Aluminium Oxide Nanoparticles in Cell Lines. International Journal of Nanotechnology and Applications, Volume:5, Issue:2, pp:99-107.
- 13. Radziun, E., Dudkiewicz Wilczyńska, J., Książek, I., Nowak, K., Anuszewska, E.L., Kunicki, A., Olszyna, A. and Zabkowski, T., (2011). Assessment of the Cytotoxicity of Aluminium Oxide Nanoparticles on Selected Mammalian Cells. Toxicology in vitro, Volume:25, Issue:8, pp:1694-1700.
- 14. Kim, Y.J., Choi, H.S., Song, M.K., Youk, D.Y., Kim, J.H. and Ryu, J.C., (2009). Genotoxicity of Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3) Nanoparticle in Mammalian Cell Lines. Molecular and Cellular Toxicology, Volume:5, pp:172-178.
- 15. Skocaj, M., Filipic, M., Petkovic, J. and Novak, S., (2011). Titanium Dioxide in Our Everyday Life; Is It Safe?. Radiology and Oncology, Volume:45, Issue:4, pp:227–247.
- 16. Liu, R., Zhang, X., Pu, Y., Yin, L., Li, Y., Zhang, X., Liang, G., Li, X. and Zhang, J., (2010). Small-sized Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles Mediate Immune Toxicity in Rat Pulmonary Alveolar Macrophages in vivo. Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Volume:10, Issue:8, pp:5161-5169.
- 17. Wilson, C.L., Natarajan, V., Hayward, S.L., Khalimonchuk, O. and Kidambi, S., (2015). Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Loss of Glutamate Uptake in Primary Astrocytes Exposed to Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles. Nanoscale, Volume:7, Issue:44, pp:18477-18488.
- 18. Grassian, V.H., O'Shaughnessy, P.T., Adamcakova-Dodd, A. and Pettibone, J.M., (2007). Inhalation Exposure Study of Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles with a Primary Particle Size of 2 to 5 nm. Environmental Health Perspectives, Volume:115, Issue:3, pp:397-402.
- 19. Federici, G., Shaw, B.J. and Handy, R.D., (2007). Toxicity of Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles to Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss): Gill Injury, Oxidative Stress, and Other Physiological Effects. Aquatic Toxicology, Volume:84, pp:415–430.
- 20. Ahamed, M., AlSalhi, M.S. and Siddiqui, M.K.J., (2010). Silver Nanoparticle Applications and Human Health. Clinica Chimica Acta, Volume:411, pp::1841–1848.
- 21. Yan, Y., Yang, H., Li, J., Lu, X. and Wang, C., (2012). Release Behavior of Nano-silver Textiles in Simulated Perspiration Fluids. Textile Research Journal, Volume:82, Issue:14, pp:1422–1429.
- 22. Mahendra, R., Yadav, A. and Gade, A., (2009). Silver Nanoparticles As a New Generation of Antimicrobials. Biotechnology Advances, Volume:27, pp:76-83.
- 23. Li, W., Xie, X., Shi, Q., Zeng, H., OU-Yang, Y. and Chen, Y., (2010). Antibacterial Activity and Mechanism of Silver Nanoparticles on Escherichia Coli. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, Volume:85, pp:1115–1122.
- 24. Burd, A., Kwok, C.H., Hung, S.C., Chan, H.S., Gu, H., Lam, W.K. and Huang, L., (2009). A Comparative Study of the Cytotoxicity of Silver-based Dressings in Monolayer Cell, Tissue Explant, and Animal Models. Wound Repair and Regeneration, Volume:15, pp:94–104.
- 25. Hussain, S.M., Hess, K.L., Gearhart, J.M., Geiss, K.T. and Schlager, J.J., (2005). In vitro Toxicity of Nanoparticles in BRL 3A Rat Liver Cells. Toxicology in vitro, Volume:19, pp:975–983.
- 26. Gorth, D.J., Rand, D.M. and Webster, T.J., (2011). Silver Nanoparticle Toxicity in Drosophila: Size Does Matter. International Journal of Nanomedicine, Volume:6, pp:343–350.
- 27. Asharani, P.V., Wu, Y.L, Gong, Z. and Valiyaveettil, S., (2008). Toxicity of Silver Nanoparticles in Zebrafish Models. Nanotechnology, Volume:19, pp:1-8.
- 28. Aruoja, V., Dubourguier, H.C., Kasemets, K. and Kahru, A., (2009). Toxicity of Nanoparticles of CuO, ZnO and TiO2 to Microalgae Pseudokirchneriella Subcapitata. Science of the Total Environment, Volume:407, Issue:4, pp:1461-1468.
- 29. Ahamed, M., Siddiqui, M.A., Akhtar, M.J., Ahmad, I., Pant, A.B. and Alhadlaq, H.A., (2010). Genotoxic Potential of Copper Oxide Nanoparticles in Human Lung Epithelial Cells. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, Volume:396, Issue:2, pp:578-583.
- 30. Meng, H., Chen, Z., Xing, G., Yuan, H., Chen, C., Zhao, F., Zhang, C. and Zhao, Y., (2007). Ultrahigh Reactivity Provokes Nanotoxicity: Explanation of Oral Toxicity of Nano-copper Particles. Toxicology Letters, Volume:175, Issue:1, pp:102-110.
- 31. Magrez, A., Kasas, S., Salicio, V., Pasquier, N., Seo, J.W., Celio, M., Catsicas, S., Schwaller, B. and Forró, L., (2006). Cellular Toxicity of Carbon-based Nanomaterials. Nano Letters, Volume:6, Issue:6, pp:1121–1125.
- 32. Pacurari, M., Lowe, K., Tchounwou, P.B. and Kafoury, R., (2016). A Review on the Respiratory System Toxicity of Carbon Nanoparticles. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, Volume:13, Issue:3, pp:1-19.
- 33. Miyawaki, J., Yudasaka, M., Azami, T., Kubo, Y. and Iijima, S., (2008). Toxicity of Single-walled Carbon Nanohorns. ACS Nano, Volume:2, pp:213–226.
- 34. Lee, J.S., Choi, Y.C., Shin, J.H., Lee, J.H., Lee, Y., Park, S.Y., Baek, J.E., Park, J.D., Ahn, K. and Yu, I.J., (2015). Health Surveillance Study of Workers Who Manufacture Multi-walled Carbon Nanotubes. Nanotoxicology, Volume:9, pp:802–811.
- 35. Hardman, R., (2006). A Toxicologic Review of Quantum Dots: Toxicity Depends on Physicochemical and Environmental Factors. Environmental Health Perspectives, Volume:114, Issue:2, pp:165–172.
- 36. Panyam, J. and Labhasetwar, V., (2003). Biodegradable Nanoparticles for Drug and Gene Delivery to Cells and Tissue. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, Volume:55, Issue:3, pp::329-347.
- 37. Grabowski, N., Hillaireau, H., Vergnaud, J., Tsapis, N., Pallardy, M., Kerdine-Römer, S. and Fattal, E., (2015). Surface Coating Mediates the Toxicity of Polymeric Nanoparticles Towards Human-like Macrophages. International Journal of Pharmaceutics, Volume:482, Issue:1-2, pp:75-83.
- 38. Voigt, N., Henrich-Noack, P., Kockentiedt, S., Hintz, W., Tomas, J. and Sabel, B.A., (2014). Toxicity of Polymeric Nanoparticles In vivo and In vitro. Journal of Nanoparticle Research, Volume:16, Issue:6, pp:1-12.
- 39. Napierska, D., Thomassen, L.C.J., Lison, D., Martens J.A. and Hoet, P.H., (2010). The Nanosilica Hazard: Another Variable Entity. Particle and Fibre Toxicology, Volume:7, pp:1-32.
- 40. IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, (1997). Silica, Some Silicates, Coal Dust and Para-aramid Fibrils. Monographs on the Evaluation Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, Volume:68, pp:1–475.
- 41. Ravi Kumar, M.N.V., Sameti, M., Mohapatra, S.S., Kong, X., Lockey, R.F., Bakowsky, U., Lindenblatt, G., Schmidt, C.H. and Lehr, M., (2004). Cationic Silica Nanoparticles as Gene Carriers: Synthesis, Characterization, and Transfection Efficiency In vitro and In vivo. Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Volume:4, pp:876–881.
- 42. Slowing, I.I., Vivero-Escoto, J.L., Wu, C.W. and Lin, V.S., (2008). Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles as Controlled Release Drug Delivery and Gene Transfection Carriers. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, Volume:60, pp:1278–1288.
- 43. Li, X.Y., Brown, D., Smith, S., MacNee, W. and Donaldson, K., (1999). Short-term Inflammatory Responses Following Intratracheal Instillation of Fine and Ultrafine Carbon Black In Rats. Inhalation Toxicology, Volume:11, pp:709–731.
- 44. Zhang, Q., Kusaka, Y., Zhu, X., Sato, K., Mo, Y., Kluz, T. and Donaldson, K., (2003). Comparative Toxicity of Standard Nickel and Ultrafine Nickel In Lung After Intratracheal Instillation. Journal of Occupational Health, Volume:45, pp:23–30.
- 45. Chen, M. and von Mikecz, A., (2005). Formation of Nucleoplasmic Protein Aggregates Impairs Nuclear Function In Response to SiO2 Nanoparticles. Experimental Cell Research, Volume:305, pp:51–62.
Year 2017,
Volume: 12 Issue: 1, 57 - 65, 09.01.2017
HANDE Sezgin
,
İPEK Yalçın Eniş
,
MERVE Küçükali Öztürk
,
EZGİ İşmar
References
- 1. Buzea, C., Pacheco, I.I. and Robbie, K., (2007). Nanomaterials and Nanoparticles: Sources and Toxicity. Biointerphases, Volume:2, Issue:4, pp: 17-71.
- 2. Merwe, D.V.D. and Pickrell, J.A., (2012). Toxicity of Nanomaterials. In “Veterinary Toxicology: Basic and Clinical Principles”, Eds. Ramesh C. Gupta, Elsevier, pp: 383-390.
- 3. Marambio-Jones, C. and Hoek, E.M.V., (2010). A Review of the Antibacterial Effects of Silver Nanomaterials and Potential Implications for Human Health and the Environment. Journal of Nanoparticle Research, Volume:12, Issue:5, pp:1531–1551.
- 4. Sharifi, S., Behzadi, S., Laurent, S., Forrest, M.L., Stroeve, P. and Mahmoudi, M., (2012). Toxicity of Nanomaterials. Chemical Society Reviews, Volume:418, Issue:6, pp:2323–2343.
- 5. Yildirimer, L., Thanh, N.T.K., Loizidou, M. and Seifalian A.M., (2011). Toxicological Considerations of Clinically Applicable Nanoparticles. Nano Today, Volume:6, pp:585-607.
- 6. Clichici, S. and Filip, A., (2015). In vivo Assessment of Nanomaterials Toxicity, Nanomaterials-Toxicity and Risk Assessment, pp:93-121.
- 7. Pourmand, A. and Abdollahi, M., (2012). Current Opinion on Nanotoxicology. DARU Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Volume:20, Issue:95, pp::1-3.
- 8. Bahadar, H., Maqbool, F., Niaz, K. and Abdollahi, M., (2016). Toxicity of Nanoparticles and an Overview of Current Experimental Models. Iranian Biomedical Journal, Volume:20, Issue:1, pp:1-11.
- 9. Balasubramanyam, A., Sailaja, N., Mahboob, M., Rahman, M.F., Hussain, S.M. and Grover, P., (2009). In vivo Genotoxicity Assessment of Aluminium Oxide Nanomaterials in Rat Peripheral Blood Cells Using the Comet Assay and Micronucleus Test. Mutagenesis, Volume:24, Issue:3, pp:245-251.
- 10. De Jong, W.H. and Borm, P.J., (2008). Drug Delivery and Nanoparticles: Applications and Hazards. International Journal of Nanomedicine, Volume:3, Issue:2, pp:133-149.
- 11. Park, E.J., Lee, G.H., Yoon, C., Jeong, U., Kim, Y., Cho, M.H. and Kim, D.W., (2016). Biodistribution and Toxicity of Spherical Aluminium Oxide Nanoparticles. Journal of Applied Toxicology, Volume:36, pp:424–433.
- 12. Arul Prakash, F., Dushendra Babu, G.J., Lavanya, M., Shenbaga Vidhya, K. and Devasena, T., (2011). Toxicity Studies of Aluminium Oxide Nanoparticles in Cell Lines. International Journal of Nanotechnology and Applications, Volume:5, Issue:2, pp:99-107.
- 13. Radziun, E., Dudkiewicz Wilczyńska, J., Książek, I., Nowak, K., Anuszewska, E.L., Kunicki, A., Olszyna, A. and Zabkowski, T., (2011). Assessment of the Cytotoxicity of Aluminium Oxide Nanoparticles on Selected Mammalian Cells. Toxicology in vitro, Volume:25, Issue:8, pp:1694-1700.
- 14. Kim, Y.J., Choi, H.S., Song, M.K., Youk, D.Y., Kim, J.H. and Ryu, J.C., (2009). Genotoxicity of Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3) Nanoparticle in Mammalian Cell Lines. Molecular and Cellular Toxicology, Volume:5, pp:172-178.
- 15. Skocaj, M., Filipic, M., Petkovic, J. and Novak, S., (2011). Titanium Dioxide in Our Everyday Life; Is It Safe?. Radiology and Oncology, Volume:45, Issue:4, pp:227–247.
- 16. Liu, R., Zhang, X., Pu, Y., Yin, L., Li, Y., Zhang, X., Liang, G., Li, X. and Zhang, J., (2010). Small-sized Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles Mediate Immune Toxicity in Rat Pulmonary Alveolar Macrophages in vivo. Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Volume:10, Issue:8, pp:5161-5169.
- 17. Wilson, C.L., Natarajan, V., Hayward, S.L., Khalimonchuk, O. and Kidambi, S., (2015). Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Loss of Glutamate Uptake in Primary Astrocytes Exposed to Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles. Nanoscale, Volume:7, Issue:44, pp:18477-18488.
- 18. Grassian, V.H., O'Shaughnessy, P.T., Adamcakova-Dodd, A. and Pettibone, J.M., (2007). Inhalation Exposure Study of Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles with a Primary Particle Size of 2 to 5 nm. Environmental Health Perspectives, Volume:115, Issue:3, pp:397-402.
- 19. Federici, G., Shaw, B.J. and Handy, R.D., (2007). Toxicity of Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles to Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss): Gill Injury, Oxidative Stress, and Other Physiological Effects. Aquatic Toxicology, Volume:84, pp:415–430.
- 20. Ahamed, M., AlSalhi, M.S. and Siddiqui, M.K.J., (2010). Silver Nanoparticle Applications and Human Health. Clinica Chimica Acta, Volume:411, pp::1841–1848.
- 21. Yan, Y., Yang, H., Li, J., Lu, X. and Wang, C., (2012). Release Behavior of Nano-silver Textiles in Simulated Perspiration Fluids. Textile Research Journal, Volume:82, Issue:14, pp:1422–1429.
- 22. Mahendra, R., Yadav, A. and Gade, A., (2009). Silver Nanoparticles As a New Generation of Antimicrobials. Biotechnology Advances, Volume:27, pp:76-83.
- 23. Li, W., Xie, X., Shi, Q., Zeng, H., OU-Yang, Y. and Chen, Y., (2010). Antibacterial Activity and Mechanism of Silver Nanoparticles on Escherichia Coli. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, Volume:85, pp:1115–1122.
- 24. Burd, A., Kwok, C.H., Hung, S.C., Chan, H.S., Gu, H., Lam, W.K. and Huang, L., (2009). A Comparative Study of the Cytotoxicity of Silver-based Dressings in Monolayer Cell, Tissue Explant, and Animal Models. Wound Repair and Regeneration, Volume:15, pp:94–104.
- 25. Hussain, S.M., Hess, K.L., Gearhart, J.M., Geiss, K.T. and Schlager, J.J., (2005). In vitro Toxicity of Nanoparticles in BRL 3A Rat Liver Cells. Toxicology in vitro, Volume:19, pp:975–983.
- 26. Gorth, D.J., Rand, D.M. and Webster, T.J., (2011). Silver Nanoparticle Toxicity in Drosophila: Size Does Matter. International Journal of Nanomedicine, Volume:6, pp:343–350.
- 27. Asharani, P.V., Wu, Y.L, Gong, Z. and Valiyaveettil, S., (2008). Toxicity of Silver Nanoparticles in Zebrafish Models. Nanotechnology, Volume:19, pp:1-8.
- 28. Aruoja, V., Dubourguier, H.C., Kasemets, K. and Kahru, A., (2009). Toxicity of Nanoparticles of CuO, ZnO and TiO2 to Microalgae Pseudokirchneriella Subcapitata. Science of the Total Environment, Volume:407, Issue:4, pp:1461-1468.
- 29. Ahamed, M., Siddiqui, M.A., Akhtar, M.J., Ahmad, I., Pant, A.B. and Alhadlaq, H.A., (2010). Genotoxic Potential of Copper Oxide Nanoparticles in Human Lung Epithelial Cells. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, Volume:396, Issue:2, pp:578-583.
- 30. Meng, H., Chen, Z., Xing, G., Yuan, H., Chen, C., Zhao, F., Zhang, C. and Zhao, Y., (2007). Ultrahigh Reactivity Provokes Nanotoxicity: Explanation of Oral Toxicity of Nano-copper Particles. Toxicology Letters, Volume:175, Issue:1, pp:102-110.
- 31. Magrez, A., Kasas, S., Salicio, V., Pasquier, N., Seo, J.W., Celio, M., Catsicas, S., Schwaller, B. and Forró, L., (2006). Cellular Toxicity of Carbon-based Nanomaterials. Nano Letters, Volume:6, Issue:6, pp:1121–1125.
- 32. Pacurari, M., Lowe, K., Tchounwou, P.B. and Kafoury, R., (2016). A Review on the Respiratory System Toxicity of Carbon Nanoparticles. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, Volume:13, Issue:3, pp:1-19.
- 33. Miyawaki, J., Yudasaka, M., Azami, T., Kubo, Y. and Iijima, S., (2008). Toxicity of Single-walled Carbon Nanohorns. ACS Nano, Volume:2, pp:213–226.
- 34. Lee, J.S., Choi, Y.C., Shin, J.H., Lee, J.H., Lee, Y., Park, S.Y., Baek, J.E., Park, J.D., Ahn, K. and Yu, I.J., (2015). Health Surveillance Study of Workers Who Manufacture Multi-walled Carbon Nanotubes. Nanotoxicology, Volume:9, pp:802–811.
- 35. Hardman, R., (2006). A Toxicologic Review of Quantum Dots: Toxicity Depends on Physicochemical and Environmental Factors. Environmental Health Perspectives, Volume:114, Issue:2, pp:165–172.
- 36. Panyam, J. and Labhasetwar, V., (2003). Biodegradable Nanoparticles for Drug and Gene Delivery to Cells and Tissue. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, Volume:55, Issue:3, pp::329-347.
- 37. Grabowski, N., Hillaireau, H., Vergnaud, J., Tsapis, N., Pallardy, M., Kerdine-Römer, S. and Fattal, E., (2015). Surface Coating Mediates the Toxicity of Polymeric Nanoparticles Towards Human-like Macrophages. International Journal of Pharmaceutics, Volume:482, Issue:1-2, pp:75-83.
- 38. Voigt, N., Henrich-Noack, P., Kockentiedt, S., Hintz, W., Tomas, J. and Sabel, B.A., (2014). Toxicity of Polymeric Nanoparticles In vivo and In vitro. Journal of Nanoparticle Research, Volume:16, Issue:6, pp:1-12.
- 39. Napierska, D., Thomassen, L.C.J., Lison, D., Martens J.A. and Hoet, P.H., (2010). The Nanosilica Hazard: Another Variable Entity. Particle and Fibre Toxicology, Volume:7, pp:1-32.
- 40. IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, (1997). Silica, Some Silicates, Coal Dust and Para-aramid Fibrils. Monographs on the Evaluation Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, Volume:68, pp:1–475.
- 41. Ravi Kumar, M.N.V., Sameti, M., Mohapatra, S.S., Kong, X., Lockey, R.F., Bakowsky, U., Lindenblatt, G., Schmidt, C.H. and Lehr, M., (2004). Cationic Silica Nanoparticles as Gene Carriers: Synthesis, Characterization, and Transfection Efficiency In vitro and In vivo. Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Volume:4, pp:876–881.
- 42. Slowing, I.I., Vivero-Escoto, J.L., Wu, C.W. and Lin, V.S., (2008). Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles as Controlled Release Drug Delivery and Gene Transfection Carriers. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, Volume:60, pp:1278–1288.
- 43. Li, X.Y., Brown, D., Smith, S., MacNee, W. and Donaldson, K., (1999). Short-term Inflammatory Responses Following Intratracheal Instillation of Fine and Ultrafine Carbon Black In Rats. Inhalation Toxicology, Volume:11, pp:709–731.
- 44. Zhang, Q., Kusaka, Y., Zhu, X., Sato, K., Mo, Y., Kluz, T. and Donaldson, K., (2003). Comparative Toxicity of Standard Nickel and Ultrafine Nickel In Lung After Intratracheal Instillation. Journal of Occupational Health, Volume:45, pp:23–30.
- 45. Chen, M. and von Mikecz, A., (2005). Formation of Nucleoplasmic Protein Aggregates Impairs Nuclear Function In Response to SiO2 Nanoparticles. Experimental Cell Research, Volume:305, pp:51–62.