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Year 2016, Volume: 11 Issue: 4, 48 - 66, 18.10.2016

Abstract

References

  • American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication Manual of The American Psychological Association (6. Baskı). Washington.
  • Bana, J. and Dolma, P., (2006). The Relationship Between the Estimation and Computation Abilities of Year 7 Students. Edith Cowan University, Perth: Research.
  • Bayram, G. ve Duatepe Paksu, A., (2014). 8. Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Üslü İfadelere İlişkin Sayı Duyuları ve Başarıları Arasındaki İlişki. Batı Anadolu Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi (BAED), 05 (09), 47-70.
  • Bresser, R. and Holtzman, C., (1999). Developing Number Sense Grades 3-6. Sausalito, California: Math Solutions Publications.
  • Büyüköztürk, Ş., (2007). Sosyal Bilimler İçin Veri Analizi El Kitabı. Ankara: Pegem Akademi Yayıncılık.
  • Carpenter, T.P., (1989). Number Sense and Other Nonsense. In J.T. Sowder ve B.P. Schappelle (Eds.), Establishing foundations for Research on Number Sense and Related Topics: Report of a Conference (pp. 89-91). San Diego, CA: San Diego State University, Center for Research in Mathematics and Science Education.
  • Chen, P.C., Li, M.N., and Yang, D.C., (2013). An Effective Remedial Instruction in Number Sense for Third Graders in Taiwan. New Waves-Educational Research & Development, 16 (1), 3-21.
  • Cheng, Q. and Wang, J., (2012). Curriculum Opportunities for Number Sense Development: A Comparison of First-Grade Textbooks in China and The United States. International Journal for Mathematics Teaching and Learning, 1-52.
  • Dehaene, S., (1997). The Number Sense. America: Oxford University Press.
  • Griffin, S., (2004). Building Number Sense with Number Worlds: a Mathematics Program for Young Children. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 173-180.
  • Gülbağcı Dede, H., (2015). İlköğretim ve Ortaöğretim Matematik Öğretmen Adaylarının Sayı Hissinin İncelenmesi. Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi. Marmara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü.
  • Güven, Y., (2002). Erken Çocukluk Döneminde Sezgisel Düşünme ve Matematik. V. Ulusal Fen Bilimleri ve Matematik Eğitimi Kongresi. ODTÜ. Ankara, Türkiye
  • Harç, S., (2010). 6. Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Sayı Duygusu Kavramı Açısından Mevcut Durumlarının Analizi. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Marmara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü.
  • Hope, J., (1989). Promoting Number Sense in School. Arithmetic Teacher, 12–16.
  • İymen, E., (2012). 8. Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Üslü İfadeler ile İlgili Sayı Duyularının Sayı Duyusu Bileşenleri Bakımından İncelenmesi. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Pamukkale Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü.
  • Jordan, N.C., Glutting, J., and Ramineni, C., (2009). The Importance of Number Sense to Mathematics Achievement in First and Third Grades. Learning and Individual Differences, 1-7.
  • Jordan, N.C. and Kaplan, D., (2007). The Division for Learning Disabilities of the Council for Exceptional Children Predicting First-Grade Math Achievement From Developmental Number Sense Trajectories. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 22 (1), 36-46.
  • Karasar, N., (2003). Bilimsel Araştırma Yöntemi. Ankara: Nobel Yayın Dağıtım.
  • Kayhan Altay, M., (2010). İlköğretim İkinci Kademe Öğrencilerinin Sayı Duyularının; Sınıf Düzeyine, Cinsiyete ve Sayı Duyusu Bileşenlerine Göre İncelenmesi. Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü.
  • Major, K. and Perger, P., (2014). Personal Number Sense and New Zealand Pre-Service Teachers. The 37th Annual Conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia, (pp. 710-713). Sydney Australia: https://researchspace.auckland.ac.nz/handle/2292/22571 adresinden 13.03.2015 tarihinde edinilmiştir.
  • Markovits, Z., (1989). Reactions to the Number Sense Conference. In J.T. Sowder ve B.P. Schappelle (Eds.), Establishing Foundations for Research on Number Sense and Related Topics: Report of a Conference, (pp. 78-81). San Diego, CA: San Diego State University, Center for Research in Mathematics and Science Education.
  • Markovits, Z. and Sowder, J., (1994). Developing Number Sense: An Intervation Study in Grade 7. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education , 25 (1), 4-29.
  • Maryam, A., Mahnaz, E., Hasan, A., (2011). Comparing The Impact of Number Sense on Mathematics Achievement in Both Dyscalculia and Normal Students. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Science, 28, 5-9.
  • McGuire, P., Kinzie, M.B., and Berch, D.B., (2012). Developing Number Sense in Pre-K with Five-Frames. Early Childhood Education Journal (40), 213-222.
  • McIntosh, A., Reys, B.J., and Reys, R.E., (1992). A Proposed Framework for Examining Basic Number Sense. For the Learning of Mathematics, 12, 2-8.
  • MEB, (2005). İlköğretim Matematik Dersi 1-5. Sınıflar Öğretim Programı. Ankara: Talim ve Terbiye Kurulu Başkanlığı.
  • Menon, R., (2004). Elementary School Children’s Number Sense. International Journal for Mathematics Teaching and Learning. http://www.cimt.plymouth.ac.uk/journal/ramamenon.pdf adresinden 21.02.2014 tarihinde edinilmiştir.
  • Mohamed, M. and Johnny, J., (2010). Investigating Number Sense Among Students. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 8, 317-324.
  • National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM). (1989). Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics. Reston, VA: NCTM.
  • Özsoy, G. ve Özsoy, S., (2013). Eğitim Araştırmalarında Etki Büyüklüğü Raporlanması. İlköğretim Online , 12 (2), 334-346.
  • Purnomo, Y.W., Kowiyah, Alyani, F., and Assiti, S.S., (2014). Assessing Number Sense Performance of Indonesian Elementary School Students. International Education Studies , 7 (8), 74-84.
  • Reys, R.E. and Yang, D.C., (1998). Relationship Between Computational Performance and Number Sense Among Sixth- and Eighth-Grade Students in Taiwan. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 29 (2), 225-237.
  • Reys, R., Reys, B., McIntosh, A., Emanuelsson, G., Johansson, B., and Yang, D.C., (1999). Assessing Number Sense of Students in Australia, Sweeden, Taiwan, and The United States. School Science and Mathematics, 99 (2), 61–70.
  • Singh, P., (2009). An Assessment of Number Sense Among Secondary School Students. International Journal for Mathematics Teaching and Learning, 1-27.
  • Şengül, S., (2013). Sınıf Öğretmeni Adaylarının Kullandıkları Sayı Duyusu Stratejilerinin Belirlenmesi. Kuram ve Uygulamada Eğitim Bilimleri, 13 (3), 1951-1974.
  • Şengül, S. and Gülbağcı, H., (2012). Evaluation of Number Sense on the Subject of Decimal Numbers of the Secondary Stage Students in Turkey. International Online Journal of Educational Sciences, 4 (2), 296-310
  • Tsao, Y.L., (2002). The Number Sense of Preservıce Elementary School Teachers. Unpublished Doctoral Thesis. Unıversıty of Northern Colorado, College of Arts and Sciences Mathematical Sciences Department.
  • Tsao, Y.L., (2004a). Effects of a Problem-Solving-Based Mathematics Course on Number Sense of Preservice Teachers. Journal Of College Teaching and Learning, 1 (2), 33-50.
  • Tsao, Y.L., (2004b). Exploring The Connections Among Number Sense, Mental Computation Performance, and the Written Computation Performance of Elementary Preservice School Teachers. Journal of College Teaching & Learning, 1 (12), 71-90.
  • Yang, D.C., (1995). Number Sense Performance and Strategies Possessed by Sixth and Eighth Grade Students in Taiwan. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Missouri, Columbia.
  • Yang, D.C., (2003). Teaching and Learning Number Sense–an Intervention Study of Fifth Grade Students in Taiwan. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 115-136.
  • Yang, D.C. and Hsu, C.J., (2009). Teachıng Number Sense for 6th Graders in Taiwan. International Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education , 4 (2), 92-109.
  • Yang, D.C. and Huangh, F.Y., (2004). Relationships Among Computational Performance, Pictorial Representation, Symbolic Representation and Number Sense of Sixth-Grade Students in Taiwan. Educational Studies (30), 373-389.
  • Yang, D.C. and Li, M.N., (2008). An investigation of 3rd-Grade Taiwanese Students’ Performance in Number Sense. Educational Studies, 34 (5), 443-455.
  • Yang, D.C. and Li, M.N., (2013). Assessment of Animated Self-Directed Learning Activities Modules for Children’s Number Sense Development. Educational Technology & Society, 16 (3), 44-58.
  • Yang, D.C., Li, M.N., and Lin, C.I., (2008). A Study of the Performance of 5th Graders in Number Sense and Its Relatıonshıp to Achıevement in Mathematıcs. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 6 (4), 789-807. Taiwan: National Science Council.
  • Zanzali, N.A. and Ghazali, M., (2002). Assessment of School Childrens’ Number Sense. 03.12.2014 tarihinde http://math.unipa.it/~grim/ENoor8 adresinden edinilmiştir.

4. SINIF ÖĞRENCİLERİNİN SAYI HİSSİ İLE MATEMATİK BAŞARILARI ARASINDAKİ İLİŞKİNİN İNCELENMESİ

Year 2016, Volume: 11 Issue: 4, 48 - 66, 18.10.2016

Abstract

Bu çalışmada ilkokul 4. sınıf öğrencilerinin sayı hissini kullanma durumları ve öğrencilerin sayı hisleri ile matematik dersi akademik başarıları arasındaki ilişkinin incelenmesi amaçlanmaktadır. Araştırmanın çalışma grubunu, İstanbul’un Kadıköy ilçesindeki bir ilkokulda öğrenim görmekte olan 115 (61 kız, 54 erkek) 4. sınıf öğrencisi oluşturmaktadır. Ölçme aracı olarak araştırmacılar tarafından geliştirilen Sayı Hissi Testi kullanılmıştır. Ayrıca sayı hissi başarıları ile matematik başarıları arasındaki ilişkiyi tespit etmek amacıyla matematik dersi 2014-2015 güz dönemi karne notlarından yararlanılmıştır. Araştırmanın sonucunda 4. sınıf öğrencilerinin sayı hislerinin oldukça düşük olduğu sonucuna ulaşılmıştır ( =13.27, %30.16). Öğrencilerin çözümleri ve açıklamaları incelendiğinde, sayı hissinin her bileşeninde öğrencilerin sayı hissinden çok kural-işlem temelli stratejilere başvurdukları görülmüştür. Ayrıca öğrencilerin sayı hissi başarıları ile matematik dersi akademik başarıları arasında pozitif yönde, anlamlı ve orta düzeyde bir ilişki bulunmuştur [rho= .569, p<.05].

References

  • American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication Manual of The American Psychological Association (6. Baskı). Washington.
  • Bana, J. and Dolma, P., (2006). The Relationship Between the Estimation and Computation Abilities of Year 7 Students. Edith Cowan University, Perth: Research.
  • Bayram, G. ve Duatepe Paksu, A., (2014). 8. Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Üslü İfadelere İlişkin Sayı Duyuları ve Başarıları Arasındaki İlişki. Batı Anadolu Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi (BAED), 05 (09), 47-70.
  • Bresser, R. and Holtzman, C., (1999). Developing Number Sense Grades 3-6. Sausalito, California: Math Solutions Publications.
  • Büyüköztürk, Ş., (2007). Sosyal Bilimler İçin Veri Analizi El Kitabı. Ankara: Pegem Akademi Yayıncılık.
  • Carpenter, T.P., (1989). Number Sense and Other Nonsense. In J.T. Sowder ve B.P. Schappelle (Eds.), Establishing foundations for Research on Number Sense and Related Topics: Report of a Conference (pp. 89-91). San Diego, CA: San Diego State University, Center for Research in Mathematics and Science Education.
  • Chen, P.C., Li, M.N., and Yang, D.C., (2013). An Effective Remedial Instruction in Number Sense for Third Graders in Taiwan. New Waves-Educational Research & Development, 16 (1), 3-21.
  • Cheng, Q. and Wang, J., (2012). Curriculum Opportunities for Number Sense Development: A Comparison of First-Grade Textbooks in China and The United States. International Journal for Mathematics Teaching and Learning, 1-52.
  • Dehaene, S., (1997). The Number Sense. America: Oxford University Press.
  • Griffin, S., (2004). Building Number Sense with Number Worlds: a Mathematics Program for Young Children. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 173-180.
  • Gülbağcı Dede, H., (2015). İlköğretim ve Ortaöğretim Matematik Öğretmen Adaylarının Sayı Hissinin İncelenmesi. Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi. Marmara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü.
  • Güven, Y., (2002). Erken Çocukluk Döneminde Sezgisel Düşünme ve Matematik. V. Ulusal Fen Bilimleri ve Matematik Eğitimi Kongresi. ODTÜ. Ankara, Türkiye
  • Harç, S., (2010). 6. Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Sayı Duygusu Kavramı Açısından Mevcut Durumlarının Analizi. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Marmara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü.
  • Hope, J., (1989). Promoting Number Sense in School. Arithmetic Teacher, 12–16.
  • İymen, E., (2012). 8. Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Üslü İfadeler ile İlgili Sayı Duyularının Sayı Duyusu Bileşenleri Bakımından İncelenmesi. Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Pamukkale Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü.
  • Jordan, N.C., Glutting, J., and Ramineni, C., (2009). The Importance of Number Sense to Mathematics Achievement in First and Third Grades. Learning and Individual Differences, 1-7.
  • Jordan, N.C. and Kaplan, D., (2007). The Division for Learning Disabilities of the Council for Exceptional Children Predicting First-Grade Math Achievement From Developmental Number Sense Trajectories. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 22 (1), 36-46.
  • Karasar, N., (2003). Bilimsel Araştırma Yöntemi. Ankara: Nobel Yayın Dağıtım.
  • Kayhan Altay, M., (2010). İlköğretim İkinci Kademe Öğrencilerinin Sayı Duyularının; Sınıf Düzeyine, Cinsiyete ve Sayı Duyusu Bileşenlerine Göre İncelenmesi. Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü.
  • Major, K. and Perger, P., (2014). Personal Number Sense and New Zealand Pre-Service Teachers. The 37th Annual Conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia, (pp. 710-713). Sydney Australia: https://researchspace.auckland.ac.nz/handle/2292/22571 adresinden 13.03.2015 tarihinde edinilmiştir.
  • Markovits, Z., (1989). Reactions to the Number Sense Conference. In J.T. Sowder ve B.P. Schappelle (Eds.), Establishing Foundations for Research on Number Sense and Related Topics: Report of a Conference, (pp. 78-81). San Diego, CA: San Diego State University, Center for Research in Mathematics and Science Education.
  • Markovits, Z. and Sowder, J., (1994). Developing Number Sense: An Intervation Study in Grade 7. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education , 25 (1), 4-29.
  • Maryam, A., Mahnaz, E., Hasan, A., (2011). Comparing The Impact of Number Sense on Mathematics Achievement in Both Dyscalculia and Normal Students. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Science, 28, 5-9.
  • McGuire, P., Kinzie, M.B., and Berch, D.B., (2012). Developing Number Sense in Pre-K with Five-Frames. Early Childhood Education Journal (40), 213-222.
  • McIntosh, A., Reys, B.J., and Reys, R.E., (1992). A Proposed Framework for Examining Basic Number Sense. For the Learning of Mathematics, 12, 2-8.
  • MEB, (2005). İlköğretim Matematik Dersi 1-5. Sınıflar Öğretim Programı. Ankara: Talim ve Terbiye Kurulu Başkanlığı.
  • Menon, R., (2004). Elementary School Children’s Number Sense. International Journal for Mathematics Teaching and Learning. http://www.cimt.plymouth.ac.uk/journal/ramamenon.pdf adresinden 21.02.2014 tarihinde edinilmiştir.
  • Mohamed, M. and Johnny, J., (2010). Investigating Number Sense Among Students. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 8, 317-324.
  • National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM). (1989). Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics. Reston, VA: NCTM.
  • Özsoy, G. ve Özsoy, S., (2013). Eğitim Araştırmalarında Etki Büyüklüğü Raporlanması. İlköğretim Online , 12 (2), 334-346.
  • Purnomo, Y.W., Kowiyah, Alyani, F., and Assiti, S.S., (2014). Assessing Number Sense Performance of Indonesian Elementary School Students. International Education Studies , 7 (8), 74-84.
  • Reys, R.E. and Yang, D.C., (1998). Relationship Between Computational Performance and Number Sense Among Sixth- and Eighth-Grade Students in Taiwan. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 29 (2), 225-237.
  • Reys, R., Reys, B., McIntosh, A., Emanuelsson, G., Johansson, B., and Yang, D.C., (1999). Assessing Number Sense of Students in Australia, Sweeden, Taiwan, and The United States. School Science and Mathematics, 99 (2), 61–70.
  • Singh, P., (2009). An Assessment of Number Sense Among Secondary School Students. International Journal for Mathematics Teaching and Learning, 1-27.
  • Şengül, S., (2013). Sınıf Öğretmeni Adaylarının Kullandıkları Sayı Duyusu Stratejilerinin Belirlenmesi. Kuram ve Uygulamada Eğitim Bilimleri, 13 (3), 1951-1974.
  • Şengül, S. and Gülbağcı, H., (2012). Evaluation of Number Sense on the Subject of Decimal Numbers of the Secondary Stage Students in Turkey. International Online Journal of Educational Sciences, 4 (2), 296-310
  • Tsao, Y.L., (2002). The Number Sense of Preservıce Elementary School Teachers. Unpublished Doctoral Thesis. Unıversıty of Northern Colorado, College of Arts and Sciences Mathematical Sciences Department.
  • Tsao, Y.L., (2004a). Effects of a Problem-Solving-Based Mathematics Course on Number Sense of Preservice Teachers. Journal Of College Teaching and Learning, 1 (2), 33-50.
  • Tsao, Y.L., (2004b). Exploring The Connections Among Number Sense, Mental Computation Performance, and the Written Computation Performance of Elementary Preservice School Teachers. Journal of College Teaching & Learning, 1 (12), 71-90.
  • Yang, D.C., (1995). Number Sense Performance and Strategies Possessed by Sixth and Eighth Grade Students in Taiwan. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Missouri, Columbia.
  • Yang, D.C., (2003). Teaching and Learning Number Sense–an Intervention Study of Fifth Grade Students in Taiwan. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 115-136.
  • Yang, D.C. and Hsu, C.J., (2009). Teachıng Number Sense for 6th Graders in Taiwan. International Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education , 4 (2), 92-109.
  • Yang, D.C. and Huangh, F.Y., (2004). Relationships Among Computational Performance, Pictorial Representation, Symbolic Representation and Number Sense of Sixth-Grade Students in Taiwan. Educational Studies (30), 373-389.
  • Yang, D.C. and Li, M.N., (2008). An investigation of 3rd-Grade Taiwanese Students’ Performance in Number Sense. Educational Studies, 34 (5), 443-455.
  • Yang, D.C. and Li, M.N., (2013). Assessment of Animated Self-Directed Learning Activities Modules for Children’s Number Sense Development. Educational Technology & Society, 16 (3), 44-58.
  • Yang, D.C., Li, M.N., and Lin, C.I., (2008). A Study of the Performance of 5th Graders in Number Sense and Its Relatıonshıp to Achıevement in Mathematıcs. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 6 (4), 789-807. Taiwan: National Science Council.
  • Zanzali, N.A. and Ghazali, M., (2002). Assessment of School Childrens’ Number Sense. 03.12.2014 tarihinde http://math.unipa.it/~grim/ENoor8 adresinden edinilmiştir.
There are 47 citations in total.

Details

Journal Section Articles
Authors

SITKI Çekirdekçi This is me

SARE Şengül

M. CİHANGİR Doğan This is me

Publication Date October 18, 2016
Published in Issue Year 2016 Volume: 11 Issue: 4

Cite

APA Çekirdekçi, S., Şengül, S., & Doğan, M. C. (2016). 4. SINIF ÖĞRENCİLERİNİN SAYI HİSSİ İLE MATEMATİK BAŞARILARI ARASINDAKİ İLİŞKİNİN İNCELENMESİ. Qualitative Studies, 11(4), 48-66.
AMA Çekirdekçi S, Şengül S, Doğan MC. 4. SINIF ÖĞRENCİLERİNİN SAYI HİSSİ İLE MATEMATİK BAŞARILARI ARASINDAKİ İLİŞKİNİN İNCELENMESİ. Qualitative Studies. October 2016;11(4):48-66.
Chicago Çekirdekçi, SITKI, SARE Şengül, and M. CİHANGİR Doğan. “4. SINIF ÖĞRENCİLERİNİN SAYI HİSSİ İLE MATEMATİK BAŞARILARI ARASINDAKİ İLİŞKİNİN İNCELENMESİ”. Qualitative Studies 11, no. 4 (October 2016): 48-66.
EndNote Çekirdekçi S, Şengül S, Doğan MC (October 1, 2016) 4. SINIF ÖĞRENCİLERİNİN SAYI HİSSİ İLE MATEMATİK BAŞARILARI ARASINDAKİ İLİŞKİNİN İNCELENMESİ. Qualitative Studies 11 4 48–66.
IEEE S. Çekirdekçi, S. Şengül, and M. C. Doğan, “4. SINIF ÖĞRENCİLERİNİN SAYI HİSSİ İLE MATEMATİK BAŞARILARI ARASINDAKİ İLİŞKİNİN İNCELENMESİ”, Qualitative Studies, vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 48–66, 2016.
ISNAD Çekirdekçi, SITKI et al. “4. SINIF ÖĞRENCİLERİNİN SAYI HİSSİ İLE MATEMATİK BAŞARILARI ARASINDAKİ İLİŞKİNİN İNCELENMESİ”. Qualitative Studies 11/4 (October 2016), 48-66.
JAMA Çekirdekçi S, Şengül S, Doğan MC. 4. SINIF ÖĞRENCİLERİNİN SAYI HİSSİ İLE MATEMATİK BAŞARILARI ARASINDAKİ İLİŞKİNİN İNCELENMESİ. Qualitative Studies. 2016;11:48–66.
MLA Çekirdekçi, SITKI et al. “4. SINIF ÖĞRENCİLERİNİN SAYI HİSSİ İLE MATEMATİK BAŞARILARI ARASINDAKİ İLİŞKİNİN İNCELENMESİ”. Qualitative Studies, vol. 11, no. 4, 2016, pp. 48-66.
Vancouver Çekirdekçi S, Şengül S, Doğan MC. 4. SINIF ÖĞRENCİLERİNİN SAYI HİSSİ İLE MATEMATİK BAŞARILARI ARASINDAKİ İLİŞKİNİN İNCELENMESİ. Qualitative Studies. 2016;11(4):48-66.