DETERMINATION OF URBAN GREEN SPACES USING NDVI-BASED REMOTE SENSING: THE CASE OF SERIK CITY CENTER

Abstract

This study aimed to identify and classify urban green spaces in the city center of Serik through the use of satellite imagery. For this purpose, an open-access Sentinel-2 satellite image dated June 24, 2025, was obtained. The presence of urban green spaces was determined using the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) derived from Sentinel-2 data. NDVI data was classified based on threshold values established in the literature, and urban green spaces were evaluated according to vegetation density levels. The findings revealed that green spaces in Serik city center increase from the urban core towards the periphery, while central neighborhoods exhibit lower levels of green space compared to other areas. In addition, it was determined that green areas with dense vegetation are limited and fragmented, whereas areas with low vegetation density are more widespread and exhibit a more continuous structure. Consequently, the study demonstrates that NDVI-based remote sensing methods constitute a reliable, applicable, and reproducible tool for the identification and monitoring of urban green spaces. The spatial resolution provided by Sentinel-2 data offers data-driven contributions to landscape planning and management processes at the neighborhood scale.

Keywords

• Urban landscape
• Green spaces
• Sentinel-2
• NDVI
• Serik/Antalya

NDVI TABANLI UZAKTAN ALGILAMA İLE KENTSEL YEŞİL ALANLARIN BELİRLENMESİ: SERİK KENT MERKEZİ ÖRNEĞİ

Abstract

Çalışmada, Serik kent merkezinde kentsel yeşil alanların uydu görüntüleri aracılığıyla belirlenmesi ve sınıflandırılması amaçlanmıştır. Bu amaç doğrultusunda, açık erişimli 24 Haziran 2025 tarihli Sentinel-2 uydu görüntüsü temin edilmiştir. Sentinel-2 uydu verilerinden türetilen Normalize Edilmiş Fark Bitki Örtüsü İndeksi (NDVI) ile kentsel yeşil alan varlığı ortaya konulmuştur. Literatüre dayalı eşik değerleri kullanılarak NDVI verileri sınıflandırılmış ve kentsel yeşil alanlar bitki örtüsü yoğunluklarına göre değerlendirilmiştir. Bulgular, Serik kent merkezinde yeşil alanların merkezden çeperlere doğru arttığını, merkezi mahallelerde ise yeşil alanların diğer mahallere kıyasla daha düşük düzeyde olduğunu ortaya koymuştur. Ayrıca, yoğun bitki örtüsüne sahip yeşil alanların sınırlı ve parçalı olduğu, buna karşılık düşük yoğunluklu bitki örtüsünün daha yaygın ve süreklilik gösteren bir yapıda olduğu belirlenmiştir. Sonuç olarak, çalışma NDVI temelli uzaktan algılama yöntemlerinin kentsel yeşil alanların belirlenmesi ve izlenmesinde güvenilir, uygulanabilir ve tekrarlanabilir bir araç olduğunu ortaya koymaktadır. Sentinel-2 verilerinin sunduğu mekânsal çözünürlük, mahalle ölçeğinde peyzaj planlama ve yönetim süreçlerine veri temelli katkı sağlamaktadır.

Keywords

• Kentsel peyzaj
• Yeşil alanlar
• Sentinel-2
• NDVI
• Serik/Antalya

References

1. Aklibasinda, M. (2019). Determining the active green areas and their adequacy by using satellite images and GIS: The case of Nevsehir City (Turkey). FEB-Fresenius Environmental Bulletin, 7274.
2. Aklibasinda, M., & Ozdarici Ok, A. (2019). Determination of the urbanization and changes in open-green spaces in Nevsehir city through remote sensing. Environmental monitoring and assessment, 191(12), 756. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-019-7953-7
3. Alatorre L, Miramontes-Beltrán S, García-Peña A, Díaz-Caravantes R, Bravo L. (2014). Plant cover dynamics through a series of Landsat TM images (1986-2011): Central region of Chihuahua, México. Cuadernos de Investigación Geográfica / Geographical Research Letters, 40(2):449-76. https://doi.org/10.18172/cig.2510
4. Aydemir, K. P. K., Kazancı, G., & Karakuş, N. (2024). Mahalle parklarına mekânsal erişilebilirliğin değerlendirilmesine yönelik Cbs tabanlı bir yaklaşım: yaşlı dostu kent kapsamında Bolu kent merkezi. Journal of Anatolian Environmental and Animal Sciences, 9(4), 632-640. https://doi.org/10.35229/jaes.1563357
5. Bowler, D. E., Buyung-Ali, L., Knight, T. M., & Pullin, A. S. (2010). Urban greening to cool towns and cities: A systematic review of the empirical evidence. Landscape and Urban Planning, 97(3), 147–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2010.05.006
6. Brzoska, P., & Spāģe, A. (2020). From city- to site-dimension: Assessing the urban ecosystem services of different types of green infrastructure. Land, 9(5), 150. https://doi.org/10.3390/land9050150
7. Breuste, J., Schnellinger, J., Qureshi, S. & Faggi, A. (2013). Urban Ecosystem services on the local level: Urban green spaces as providers. Ekológia (Bratislava), 32(3), 290-304. https://doi.org/10.2478/eko-2013-0026
8. Carlson, T. N., & Ripley, D. A. (1997). On the relation between NDVI, fractional vegetation cover, and leaf area index. Remote Sensing of Environment, 62(3), 241–252. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0034-4257(97)00104-1

9. Cohen, P., Potchter, O., & Matzarakis, A. (2012). Daily and seasonal climatic conditions of green urban open spaces in the Mediterranean climate and their impact on human comfort. Building and Environment, 51, 285–295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2011.11.020
10. Crippen, R. E. (1990). Calculating the vegetation index faster. Remote Sensing of Environment, 34(1), 71-73. https://doi.org/10.1016/0034-4257(90)90085-Z
11. Çetinkaya, Ş. B., Çolak, K., & Gençel, Z. (2023). Antalya Kent Merkezinin Zamansal Gelişiminin Fraktal Boyut Yöntemi ile İncelenmesi. Türkiye Kentsel Morfoloji Ağı, 370-379.
12. Congalton, R. G., & Green, K. (2019). Assessing the accuracy of remotely sensed data: principles and practices. RC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2009; ISBN 0-87-37198-67.
13. Çorbacı, Ö. L., & Ekren, E. (2022). Kentsel Açık Yeşil Alanların Kurakçıl Peyzaj Açısından Değerlendirilmesi Ankara Altınpark Örneği. Journal Of Landscape Research And Practices (JOLARP), 4(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.56629/paud.1137410
14. De, S., Das, A., Mazumder, T. N. (2025). A systematic literature review of remote sensing approaches in urban green space research: Towards achieving sustainable development goals. Urban Climate, 59, 102332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2025.102332
15. Doğan, D., Zengin, M., Özdede, S., & Yılmaz, F. Ç. (2023). Determining the Qualification of Green Areas in Urban Areas and Their Contributions to Air Quality with I-Tree Canopy the Case of Denizli Central County and City Centre. Turkish Journal of Agriculture-Food Science and Technology, 11(11), 2146-2154. https://doi.org/10.24925/turjaf.v11i11.2146-2154.6371
16. Doygun, H., Atmaca, M., & Zengin, M. (2015). Kahramanmaraş’ta kentleşme ve yeşil alan varlığındaki zamansal değişimlerin incelenmesi. KSÜ Doğa Bilimleri Dergisi, 18(4), 55-61. https://doi.org/10.18016/ksujns.32716
17. Drusch, M., Del Bello, U., Carlier, S., et al. (2012). Sentinel-2: ESA’s optical high-resolution mission for GMES operational services. Remote Sensing of Environment, 120, 25–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2011.11.026
18. Elinç, Z. K., Elinç, H., & Kaya, L. G. (2012). Antalya Atatürk kültür parkı örneğinde; kentsel yeşil alanların önemli parçası olan su elemanları. İnönü Üniversitesi Sanat ve Tasarım Dergisi, 2(4).
19. Escobedo, F. J., Kroeger, T., & Wagner, J. E. (2011). Urban forests and pollution mitigation: Analyzing ecosystem services and disservices. Environmental Pollution, 159(8–9), 2078–2087. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2011.01.010
20. European Space Agency (ESA). (2015). Sentinel-2 user handbook. ESA Publications. https://sentinel.esa.int/documents/247904/685211/Sentinel-2_User_Handbook
21. Evans, D. L., Falagán, N., Hardman, C. A., Kourmpetli, S., Liu, L., Mead, B. R., Davies, J. A. C. (2022). Ecosystem service delivery by urban agriculture and green infrastructure – a systematic review. Ecosystem Services, 54, 101405. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2022.101405
22. Eyileten, B., Esendağlı, Ç., & Selim, S. (2022). Assessment of urban green space distribution within the scope of European green deal using NDVI indice; case of Nicosia/Cyprus. Journal of Architectural Sciences and Applications, 7(2), 615-623. https://doi.org/10.30785/mbud.1152364
23. Ferreira, L. G., Ferreira, N. C., & Ferreira, M. E. (2008). Remote sensing of vegetation: Evolution and state of the art. Acta Scientiarum - Biological Sciences. DOI: 10.4025/actascibiolsci.v30i4.5868
24. Gessner, U., Machwitz, M., Esch, T., Tillack, A., Naeimi, V., Kuenzer, C. & Dech, S. (2015). Multi-sensor mapping of West African land cover using MODIS, ASAR and TanDEM-X/TerraSAR-X data. Remote Sensing of Environment, 164, 282-297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2015.03.029
25. Gutman, G., Skakun, S., & Gitelson, A. (2021). Revisiting the use of red and near-infrared reflectances in vegetation studies and numerical climate models. Science of Remote Sensing, 4, 100025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.srs.2021.100025
26. Gül, A., Dinç, G., Akın, T., & Koçak, A. İ. (2020). Kentsel açık ve yeşil alanların mevcut yasal durumu ve uygulamadaki sorunlar. İdealkent, 11(Kentleşme ve Ekonomi Özel Sayısı), 1281-1312.
27. Huete, A., Didan, K., Miura, T., Rodriguez, E. P., Gao, X., & Ferreira, L. G. (2002). Overview of the radiometric and biophysical performance of the MODIS vegetation indices. Remote Sensing of Environment, 83(1-2), 195–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0034-4257(02)00096-2
28. Kabisch, N., & Haase, D. (2013). Green spaces of European cities revisited for 1990–2006. Landscape and Urban Planning, 110, 113-122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2012.10.017
29. Karakuş, N., Selim, S., Bozhöyük Ardahanlıoğlu, Z. R. ve Zengin, M. (2014). Fethiye Kenti Açık ve Yeşil Alan Dağılımlarının Cbs Teknikleri İle Analizi. Coğrafyacılar Derneği Uluslararası Kongresi, 4 - 06 Haziran 2014, pp. 577–585. Muğla, Türkiye.
30. Karakuş, N. (2022). Determining the plant density in parks by remote sensing techniques: The case of Fethiye city center. In S. Özgel Felek (Ed.), International research in architecture, planning and design (pp. 1–18). Serüven Publishing.
31. Karakuş, N. (2025). Assessment of the thermal regulation capacity of Serik national garden using satellite-based LST analysis. Journal of landscape research and practices (JOLARP), 7(2), 73-82.
32. Karakuş, N., & Koç, A. (2025). Evaluation of the Thermal Effects of Urban Agricultural Areas on Surrounding Cultural Settlements: The Case of Dörtyol Citrus Orchard. International Journal of Agriculture Environment and Food Sciences, 9(Special), 131-141. https://doi.org/10.31015/2025.si.21
33. Karakuş, N. (2026). Serik kent merkezinde uzaktan algılama teknikleriyle mahalle ölçeğinde karbon depolama potansiyelinin belirlenmesi. 10. Uluslararası Akdeniz Bilimsel Araştırmalar ve İnovasyon Kongresi (ISARC), 11-12 Nisan 2026, ss. 661-670, Antalya, Türkiye.
34. Landis, J. R., & Koch, G. G. (1977). The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data. Biometrics, 33(1), 159-174. https://doi.org/10.2307/2529310
35. Li, Q., Li, Q., Lu, X., & Liu, Y. (2024). Numerical simulation of the effect of street trees on outdoor mean radiant temperature through decomposing pedestrian experienced thermal radiation: A case study in Guangzhou, China. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 91, 128189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2023.128189
36. Lu, D., & Weng, Q. (2007). A survey of image classification methods and techniques for improving classification performance. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 28(5), 823–870. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431160600746456
37. MacFaden, SW, O'Neil-Dunne, JP, Royar, AR, Lu, JW ve Rundle, AG (2012). LIDAR ve nesne tabanlı görüntü analizi kullanılarak New York Şehri için yüksek çözünürlüklü ağaç örtüsü haritalaması. Uygulamalı Uzaktan Algılama Dergisi, 6 (1), 063567-063567.
38. Manavoğlu, E., & Ortaçeşme, V. (2007). Konyaaltı kentsel alanında bir yeşil alan sistem önerisi geliştirilmesi. Akdeniz University Journal of the Faculty of Agriculture, 20(2), 261-271.
39. Manavoğlu, E., & Ortaçeşme, V. (2015). Antalya kenti yeşil alanlarının çok ölçütlü analizi ve planlama stratejilerinin geliştirilmesi. Akdeniz University Journal of the Faculty of Agriculture, 28(1), 11-19.
40. Myint, S. W., Gober, P., Brazel, A., Grossman-Clarke, S., & Weng, Q. (2011). Per-pixel vs. object-based classification of urban land cover extraction using high spatial resolution imagery. Remote Sensing of Environment, 115(5), 1145-1161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2010.12.017
41. Nowak, D. J., Hirabayashi, S., Bodine, A., & Greenfield, E. (2014). Tree and forest effects on air quality and human health in the United States. Environmental Pollution, 193, 119–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2014.05.028
42. Nowak, D. J., & Crane, D. E. (2002). Carbon storage and sequestration by urban trees. Environmental Pollution, 116(3), 381–389. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0269-7491(01)00214-7
43. Neyns, R., & Canters, F. (2022). Mapping of urban vegetation with high-resolution remote sensing: A Review. Remote Sensing, 14(4), 1031. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14041031
44. Oke, T. R. (1989). The micrometeorology of the urban forest. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci, 324 (1223): 335–349. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.1989.0051
45. Olgun, R. (2019). Orta Ölçekli Kentler İçin Kentsel Yeşil Alan Sistem Önerisi: Niğde Kenti Örneği. Artium, 7(1), 57-69. https://izlik.org/JA23JU68DD
46. Olgun, R., & Yılmaz, T. (2019). İmar Planlarının Peyzaj Ekolojisi Yaklaşımı ile Değerlendirilmesi: Niğde Kenti Örneği. Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi, 23(3), 770-779. https://doi.org/10.19113/sdufenbed.528710
47. Olgun, R., & Yılmaz, T. (2019b). Kentsel yeşil alan varlığının Niğde kenti örneğinde değerlendirilmesi. Mediterranean Agricultural Sciences, 32(1), 11-20. https://doi.org/10.29136/mediterranean.486732
48. Olgun, R. (2020). Parkların Kullanıcı Memnuniyeti Açısından Değerlendirilmesi; Konyaaltı, Antalya Örneği. Artium, 8(1), 68-76. https://izlik.org/JA92EG53SE
49. Olgun, R., Kahraman, E., & Karakuş, N. (2022). Evaluation of Urban Green Spaces in Terms of User Satisfaction: A Case Study on Serik / Antalya. Turkish Journal of Agriculture - Food Science and Technology, 10(7), 1308–1317. https://doi.org/10.24925/turjaf.v10i7.1308-1317.5248
50. Olgun, R. (2022). Evaluation of The Visual Landscape Quality of Parks: The Case of Serik/Antalya. Turkish Journal of Agriculture - Food Science and Technology, 10(sp2), 3036–3044. https://doi.org/10.24925/turjaf.v10isp2.3036-3044.5766
51. Olgun, R., Cheng, C., & Coseo, P. (2024a). Nature-Based Solutions Scenario Planning for Climate Change Adaptation in Arid and Semi-Arid Regions. Land, 13(9), 1464. https://doi.org/10.3390/land13091464
52. Olgun, R., Cheng, C. & Coseo, P. (2024b). Desert urban ecology: urban forest, climate, and ecosystem services. Environment, Development and Sustainability. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-024-05751-7
53. Ortaçeşme, V., Karagüzel, O., Atik, M., & Sayan, S. (2000). Antalya Kentinin Aktif Yeşil Alan Varlığı Üzerinde Bir Arastırma. Akdeniz University Journal of the Faculty of Agriculture, 13(1), 11-22.
54. Pettorelli, N., Vik, J. O., Mysterud, A., Gaillard, J. M., Tucker, C. J., & Stenseth, N. C. (2005). Using the satellite-derived NDVI to assess ecological responses to environmental change. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 20(9), 503–510. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2005.05.011
55. Rigolon, A., Browning, M., & Jennings, V. (2018). Inequities in the quality of urban park systems: An environmental justice investigation of cities in the United States. Landscape and Urban Planning, 178, 156–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2018.05.026
56. Rouse Jr, J. W., Haas, R. H., Schell, J. A., & Deering, D. W. (1973). Monitoring the vernal advancement and retrogradation (green wave effect) of natural vegetation (No. NASA-CR-132982).
57. Selim, C., & Atabey, S. (2020). Kentsel yol ağaçlandırmalarının sağladığı faydaların belirlenmesi: Antalya Atatürk Bulvarı örneği. Bursa Uludağ Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi, 34(Özel Sayı), 235-248.
58. Selim, S. (2021). Yeşil Mutabakat çerçevesinde kentsel yeşil alanların yeşil altyapı sistemine entegrasyonu: Antalya-Konyaaltı örneği. Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi, 25(3), 636-643. https://doi.org/10.19113/sdufenbed.896324
59. Selim, S., Eyileten, B., & Karakuş, N. (2023). Investigation of green space cooling potential on land surface temperature in Antalya city of Turkey. The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, 48, 107-114. https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-XLVIII-M-1-2023-107-2023
60. Selim, S., & Selim, C. (2025). The role of spectral indices in identifying green spaces for urban and landscape planning: A remote sensing-based approach. In Çakır, M. & Gözlükaya, H. (Eds), The Future of Cities: Landscape, Planning and Design, pp. 1-24.
61. Selmy, S. A. H., Kucher, D. E., Mozgeris, G., Moursy, A. R. A., Jimenez-Ballesta, R., Kucher, O. D., Fadl, M. E., & Mustafa, A. A. (2023). Detecting, Analyzing, and Predicting Land Use/Land Cover (LULC) Changes in Arid Regions Using Landsat Images, CA-Markov Hybrid Model, and GIS Techniques. Remote Sensing, 15(23), 5522. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15235522
62. Serik Municipality (2026). About. https://serik.bel.tr/hakkinda (Accessed: 04.03.2026)
63. Seto, K. C., Güneralp, B., & Hutyra, L. R. (2012). Global forecasts of urban expansion to 2030 and direct impacts on biodiversity and carbon pools. PNAS, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 109(40), 16083–16088. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1211658109
64. Tarakçı Eren, E. (2016). Determination Of User Satisfaction In Terms Of The Functions Of Urban Open Green Spaces: Trabzon Example. Eurasian Art & Humanities Journal, 6(6), 94-105. http://dx.doi.org/10.17740/eas.art.2016-V6-07
65. Thomlinson, J. R., Bolstad, P. V., & Cohen, W. B. (1999). Coordinating methodologies for scaling landcover classifications from site-specific to global: Steps toward validating global map products. Remote Sensing of Environment, 70(1), 16-28. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0034-4257(99)00055-3
66. Tucker, C. J. (1979). Red and photographic infrared linear combinations for monitoring vegetation. Remote Sensing of Environment, 8(2), 127–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/0034-4257(79)90013-0
67. Tülek, B., & Ersoy Mirici, M. (2019). Kentsel sistemlerde yeşil altyapı ve ekosistem hizmetleri. Peyzaj-Eğitim, Bilim, Kültür ve Sanat Dergisi, 1(2), 1-11.
68. Ünal, S., Tektaş, N., & Tektaş, M. (2025). Kentsel Yeşil Alanların Peyzaj Değerleri, Ulaşım Ve Sürdürülebilirlik Açısından Değerlendirilmesi: Bandırma Örneği. Peyzaj-Eğitim, Bilim, Kültür ve Sanat Dergisi, 7(2), 93-113. DOI:10.53784/peyzaj.1718404
69. Weng, Q. (2012). Remote sensing of impervious surfaces in the urban areas: Requirements, methods, and trends. Remote Sensing of Environment, 117, 34–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2011.02.030
70. Wolch, J. R., Byrne, J., & Newell, J. P. (2014). Urban green space, public health, and environmental justice: The challenge of making cities ‘just green enough’. Landscape and Urban Planning, 125, 234–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2014.01.017
71. Xu, F., Yan, J., Heremans, S., Somers, B. (2022). Pan-European urban green space dynamics: A view from space between 1990 and 2015. Landscape and Urban Planning, 226, 104477. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2022.104477
72. Xue, J., & Su, B. (2017). Significant remote sensing vegetation indices: A review. Journal of Sensors, 2017, 1353691. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/1353691
73. Yilmaz, T., & Olgun, R. (2016). Investigation of the differences between factors affecting vandalism in urban green areas. Indoor and Built Environment. https://doi.org/10.1177/1420326X15573275
74. Zengin, M., Doğan, D., & Özdede, S. (2019). Yeşil yol planlama: Denizli Pamukkale ilçesi örneği. Mehmet Akif Ersoy Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi, 10(2), 166-175. https://doi.org/10.29048/makufebed.606474
75. Zhou, Q., Rover, J., Brown, J., Worstell, B., Howard, D., Wu, Z., Gallant, A. L., Rundquist, B., & Burke, M. (2019). Monitoring Landscape Dynamics in Central U.S. Grasslands with Harmonized Landsat-8 and Sentinel-2 Time Series Data. Remote Sensing, 11(3), 328. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11030328
76. Ziter, C. D., Pedersen, E. J., Kucharik, C. J., & Turner, M. G. (2019). Scale-dependent interactions between tree canopy cover and impervious surfaces reduce daytime urban heat during summer. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 116(15), 7575-7580. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1817561116