Harita Kullanıcılarının Davranışlarının Göz İzleme, Elektroensefalogram ve Dijital Taslak Haritalar Yardımıyla İncelenmesi

Year 2021, Volume: 2 Issue: 1, 21 - 31, 13.03.2021

Merve Keskin Ahmet Özgür Doğru , Kristien Ooms Philippe De Maeyer

https://doi.org/10.48123/rsgis.844770

Abstract

Bu çalışma, uzman ve uzman olmayan harita kullanıcılarının mekânsal bellek yeteneklerini incelemeye yönelik kullanıcı deneylerinin tasarım süreçlerine odaklanmıştır. Deneylerde, farklı harita kullanıcı gruplarının haritaların içeriğini hatırlamaları istendiğinde geliştirdikleri dikkate bağlı bilişsel stratejilerini açığa çıkarmada kullanılan bilişsel yük; taslak haritalar, göz izleme ve elektroensefalogram (EEG) gibi farklı yöntemlerden yararlanılarak ölçülmüştür. Birinci deneyde kullanıcılardan, basitleştirilmiş bir 2B topografik haritanın ana yollar, yerleşim, su ve yeşil alanlar gibi temel yapı elemanlarını, zaman kısıtlaması olmaksızın, ezberleyerek hatırladıklarını serbest elle çizmeleri istenmiştir. Görev sırasında kullanıcıda açığa çıkan bilişsel yük, çizilen taslak haritaların analizinin yanı sıra, sabitleme ve ilgi alanı (AoI) tabanlı göz izleme ve ortalama alfa gücü ve frontal alfa asimetrisi (FAA) gibi EEG metriklerine bağlı olarak değerlendirilmiştir. Karmaşık yapıda tasarlanan ve farklı zorluk seviyelerini içeren ikinci deneyde, çoktan seçmeli grafikler kullanılmış ve denemelerde zaman kısıtlaması uygulanmıştır. Sonuçların değerlendirilmesi aşamasında, ilk deneyden farklı olarak, bilişsel yük tespiti için EEG güç spektral yoğunluk değişimlerinden yararlanılmış; pariyetal alandaki alfa ve frontal alandaki teta frekanslarının olaya bağlı (de)senkronizasyonları dikkate alınmıştır.

Keywords

EEG, Göz İzleme, Taslak harita, Bilişsel kartografya

Investigation of Map Users' Behaviors Using Eye Tracking, Electroencephalogram and Digital Sketch Maps

Abstract

This study focused on the design processes of user experiments conducted to examine the spatial memory abilities, differences and similarities of expert and novice map users. In the experiments, different map user groups were asked to remember the content of maps with uniform or various levels of detail. The cognitive load of the participants that reveals their cognitive strategies depending on the attention they developed was measured using different methods such as sketch maps, eye tracking and electroencephalogram (EEG). In the first experiment, the users were asked to memorize the main structuring elements of a simplified 2D topographic map such as major roads, settlements, green areas and waterbodies without any time limitation, and in the next step, to draw what they remember with free hand. Next to the digital sketch map evaluation, cognitive load was assessed based on the fixation and AoI-based (area of interest) eye tracking metrics, together with EEG mean alpha power and frontal alpha asymmetry (FAA). The second experiment was designed in a more complex structure and included different difficulty levels and multiple-choice graphical options instead of hand-drawn sketch maps. Different from the first experiment, event-related (de)synchronization of alpha for parietal region and theta for frontal region were considered for evaluating the cognitive load through the calculations of EEG power spectral density changes.

Keywords

EEG, Eye tracking, Sketch map, Cognitive cartography

References

• Anderson, E. W., Potter, K. C., Matzen, L. E., Shepherd, J. F., Preston, G. A., & Silva, C. T. (2011, June). A user study of visualization effectiveness using EEG and cognitive load. In Computer graphics forum (Vol. 30, No. 3, pp. 791-800). Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
• Bell, S., & Archibald, J. (2011). Sketch mapping and geographic knowledge: what role for drawing ability? In Workshop of an Interdisciplinary Approach to Understanding and Processing Sketch Maps in Conjunction with COSIT 2011, Belfast, ME, vol. 42, pp. 1–10.
• Benedek, M., Schickel, R. J., Jauk, E., Fink, A., Neubauer, A. C. (2014). Alpha power increases in right parietal cortex reflects focused internal attention. Neuropsychologia, 56, 393–400, doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2014.02.010.
• Bertin, J. (1967). Semiology of graphics, (W. J. Berg Trans.). Madison, WI, USA: University of Wisconsin Press.
• Bertrand, C., & Thullier, F. (2009). Effects of player position task complexity in visual exploration behavior in soccer. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 40(2), 306-323.
• Billinghurst, M., & Weghorst, S. (1995, March). The use of sketch maps to measure cognitive maps of virtual environments. In Proceedings of Virtual Reality Annual International Symposium, 40-47. 4912223, doi:10.1109/VRAIS.1995.512472.
• Coan, J. A., Allen, J. J. (2003). State and trait of frontal EEG asymmetry in emotion. In The Asymmetrical Brain, Hugdahl, K., Davidson R. J., Eds., MIT Press: Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA, pp. 566-615.
• Çöltekin, A., Fabrikant, S. I., & Lacayo, M. (2010). Exploring the efficiency of users' visual analytics strategies based on sequence analysis of eye movement recordings. International Journal of Geographical Information Science, 24(10), 1559-1575. doi:10.1080/13658816.2010.511718.
• Davidson, R. J. (1984). Affect, cognition, and hemispheric specialization. In Izard, C.E., Kagan, J. & Zajonc, R.B., (Eds.), Emotion, Cognition, and Behavior, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, pp. 320–365.
• Dickmann, F., Edler, D., Bestgen, A. K., & Kuchinke, L. (2017). Exploiting illusory grid lines for object-location memory performance in urban topographic maps. The Cartographic Journal, 54(3), 242-253. doi:10.1080/00087041.2016.1236509.
• Duchowski, A. T. (2007). Eye tracking methodology - Theory and practice. London: Springer.
• Fabrikant, S. I., Hespanha, S. R., & Hegarty, M. (2010). Cognitively inspired and perceptually salient graphic displays for efficient spatial inference making. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 100(1), 13-29. doi:10.1080/00045600903362378.
• Forbus, K. D., Usher, J., & Chapman, V. (2004). Qualitative spatial reasoning about sketch maps. AI magazine, 25(3), 61. https://doi.org/10.1609/aimag.v25i3.1777.
• Gardony, A. L., Taylor, H. A., & Brunyé, T. T. (2016). Gardony map drawing analyzer: software for quantitative analysis of sketch maps. Behavior research methods, 48(1), 151-177.
• Gedminas L., (2011). Evaluating Hurricane Advisories Using Eye Tracking and Biometric Data (Master’s Thesis). East Carolina University: North Carolina, USA, 2011.
• Gevins, A., & Smith, M. E. (2000). Neurophysiological measures of working memory and individual differences in cognitive ability and cognitive style. Cerebal Cortex, 10(9), 829-839, doi:10.1093/cercor/10.9.829.
• Gevins, A., & Smith, M. E. (2003). Neurophysiological measures of cognitive workload during human-computer interaction. Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science, 4(1-2), 113–131.
• Guay, S., De Beaumont, L., Drisdelle, B. L., Lina, J. M., & Jolicoeur, P. (2018). Electrophysiological impact of multiple concussions in asymptomatic athletes: a re-analysis based on alpha activity during a visual-spatial attention task. Neuropsychologia, 108, 42-49.
• Harmon‐Jones, E. (2003). Clarifying the Emotive Functions of Asymmetrical Frontal Cortical Activity. Psychophysiology, 40(6), 838-848, doi:10.1111/1469-8986.00121.
• Henderson, J., & Ferreira, F. (2013). The interface of language, vision, and action: Eye movements and the visual world. Psychology Press.
• Holmqvist, K., Nyström, M., Andersson, R., Dewhurst, R., Jarodzka, H., & Van de Weijer, J. (2011). Eye tracking: A comprehensive guide to methods and measures. OUP Oxford.
• Huynh, N. T., & Doherty, S. T. (2007). Digital sketch map drawing as an instrument to collect data about spatial cognition, Cartographica, 42(4), 285–296.
• Jacob, R. J., & Karn, K. S. (2003). Eye tracking in human-computer interaction and usability research: Ready to deliver the promises. In J. Hyöna, R. Radach, H. Deubel (Eds.) The mind's eye cognitive and applied aspects of eye movement research, 573-605. doi:10.1016/B978-044451020-4/50031-1.
• Keskin, M., Dogru, A. O., Guney, C., & Başaraner, M. (2016). Kartografik gösterimlerin kullanılabilirliğinin ölçülmesinde nörobilişsel yöntemler (Neurocognitive methods for cartographic usability research), Harita Teknolojileri Elektronik Dergisi, 8(2), 177-189, doi:10.15659/hartek.16.08.331.
• Keskin, M., Ooms, K., Dogru, A. O., & De Maeyer, P. (2018). Digital sketch maps and eye tracking statistics as instruments to obtain insights into spatial cognition. Journal of Eye Movement Research, 11(3), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.11.3.4.
• Keskin, M., Ooms, K., Dogru, A. O., & De Maeyer, P. (2019). EEG & eye tracking user experiments for spatial memory task on maps. ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information, 8(12), 546.
• Keskin, M. (2020). Exploring the Cognitive Processes of Map Users Employing Eye Tracking and EEG (Doctoral dissertation), Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
• Keskin, M., Ooms, K., Dogru, A. O., & De Maeyer, P. (2020). Exploring the cognitive load of expert and novice map users using EEG & eye tracking. ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information, 9(7), 429.
• Klimesch, W. (1999). EEG alpha and theta oscillations reflect cognitive and memory performance: a review and analysis. Brain Research Reviews, 29(2-3), 169-195.
• Kulhavy, R. W., & Stock, W. A. (1996). How cognitive maps are learned and remembered? Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 86(1), 123-145. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8306.1996.tb01748.x.
• Kumar, N., & Kumar, J. (2016). Measurement of cognitive load in HCI systems using EEG power spectrum: An experimental study. Procedia Computer Sci. 84, 70-78.
• Lanini-Maggi, S. (2017). Depicting movement data with animations for embodied and real-time decision-making: a user study with air traffic control displays and real-time movement data (Doctoral dissertation), University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
• Lee, H., Lee, J., & Seo, S. (2009, July). Brain response to good and bad design. In International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction (pp. 111-120). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-02574-7_13.
• Liu, Y. (2019). Visual search characteristics of precise map reading by orienteers. PeerJ, 7, e7592.
• Maxwell, J. A. (1996). Applied social research methods series, Vol. 41. Qualitative research design: An interactive approach. Sage Publications, Inc.
• Meghanathan, R. N., van Leeuwen, C., & Nikolaev, A. R. (2015). Fixation duration surpasses pupil size as a measure of memory load in free viewing. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8, 1063.
• Montello, D. R. (2002). Cognitive map-design research in the twentieth century: Theoretical and empirical approaches. Cartography and Geographic Information Science, 29(3), pp. 283-304.
• Ooms, K. (2012). Maps, how do users see them?: An in depth investigation of the map users’ cognitive processes (Doctoral dissertation). Ghent University, Geography Department. Retrieved from https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/3103344.
• Ooms, K., De Maeyer, P., & Fack, V. (2015). Listen to the map user: cognition, memory, and expertise. The Cartographic Journal, 52(1), 3-19, doi:10.1179/1743277413Y.0000000068.
• Pfurtscheller, G., & Da Silva, F. L. (1999). Event-related EEG/MEG synchronization and desynchronization: basic principles. Clinical Neurophysiology, 110(11), 1842-1857.
• Sauseng, P., Klimesch, W., Schabus, M., & Doppelmayr, M. (2005). Fronto-parietal EEG coherence in theta and upper alpha reflect central executive functions of working memory. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 57(2), 97–103, doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2005.03.018.
• Togami, H. (1984). Affects on visual search performance of individual differences in fixation time and number of fixations. Ergonomics, 27(7), 789-799. doi:10.1080/00140138408963552.
• Wedel, M., & Pieters, R. (2008). Eye tracking for visual marketing. Foundations and Trends® in Marketing, 1(4), 231-320. doi:10.1561/1700000011.
• Winslow, B., Carpenter, A., Flint, J., Wang, X., Tomasetti, D., Johnston, M., & Hale, K. (2013). Combining EEG and eye tracking: using fixation-locked potentials in visual search. Journal of Eye Movement Research, 6(4), 1-11.
• Witvoet, J. (2013). Does Cognitive Load Influence Performance in a Game-Based Learning Task? https://essay.utwente.nl/64203.
• Roth, R.E. (2013). Mixed Methods for Cartographic & Geographic Research. http://www.slideshare.net/reroth/mixed-methods-for-cartographic-geographic-research?qid=ffb84221-b757-445a-a262-6271d5f0d66a&v=&b=& from_search=24. Son erişim tarihi: 21.12.2020.