Examination of Emotional Maltreatment Experienced By Young Athletes in Turkey with The Variables Related to The Sports Institution

Abstract

Although relations between coaches and athletes in sports institutions are very important, there might also be some problems. One of these negative relation types is the maltreatment of athletes by their coaches. This study aims to address the emotional maltreatment young athletes experience from their coaches using sports-related variables. In the study, in which the quantitative research method, a questionnaire form was used with the Coach-Athlete Relations Emotional Maltreatment Scale and demographics and sport relation information of participants. The population of the research consists of athletes between the ages of 18-25, who worked with a coach in the last year in Turkey, and the sample group consists of 340 athletes, 142 women and 198 men, from 33 provinces of Turkey. According to the findings of the research, male athletes were exposed to the emotional maltreatment by their coaches more than female athletes. It was also observed that emotional maltreatment experienced by athletes affected their relations with their coaches. On the other hand, there was no significant difference between team sports, individual sports, and the emotional maltreatment of coaches. Besides, no relationship was found between the coaches of the athletes, their years of work, and their sportive achievements and exposure to emotional maltreatment.

Keywords

• Emotional maltreatment
• Maltreatment in sport
• Sport
• Violence

TÜRKİYE’DE GENÇ SPORCULARIN MARUZ KALDIĞI DUYGUSAL KÖTÜ MUAMELENİN SPOR KURUMU İLE İLİŞKİLİ DEĞİŞKENLERLE İNCELENMESİ

Abstract

Spor kurumunda antrenör ve sporcular arasındaki ilişkiler son derece önemli olmakla birlikte birtakım olumsuzluklar barındırmaktadır. Bu olumsuz ilişki biçimlerinden biri de antrenörlerin sporculara yönelik gerçekleştirdiği kötü muameledir. Bu çalışma, genç sporcuların antrenörlerinden deneyimledikleri duygusal kötü muameleyi spor ile ilişkili değişkenlerle ele almayı amaçlamaktadır. Nicel araştırma yönteminin uygulandığı çalışmada Antrenör-Sporcu İlişkisi Duygusal Kötü Muamele Ölçeği ile katılımcıların demografik ve spora ilişkin bilgilerin olduğu anket formu kullanılmıştır. Araştırmanın evrenini Türkiye’de son bir yıl içinde bir antrenör ile çalışan ve 18-25 yaş aralığında bulunan sporcular, örneklem grubunu ise Türkiye’nin 33 ilinden 142 kadın ve 198 erkek olmak üzere toplam 340 sporcu oluşturmaktadır. Araştırma bulgularına göre erkek sporcular kadın sporculara göre daha fazla antrenörünün duygusal şiddetine maruz kalmıştır. Yine sporcuların maruz kaldıkları duygusal kötü muamelenin antrenörleri ile ilişkilerini etkiledikleri görülmüştür. Buna karşın takım sporları ve bireysel sporlar ile antrenör duygusal kötü muamelesi arasında anlamlı bir fark bulunamamıştır. Yine sporcuların antrenörleri ile çalışma yılları ve sportif başarıları ile duygusal kötü muameleye maruz kalma arasında bir ilişki tespit edilememiştir.

Keywords

• Duygusal kötü muamele
• Sporda kötü muamele
• Spor
• Şiddet

References

1. Alexander, K., Stafford, A. & Lewis, R. (2011). The experiences of children participating in organised sport in the UK. Edinburgh: The University of Edinburgh/NSPCC, Child Protection Research Centre.
2. Alexandre, J., Castro, C., Gama, M. & Antunes, P. (2022). Perceptions of sexual abuse in sport: A qualitative study in the Portuguese Sports Community. Front. Sports Act. Living, 4, 838-480. https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2022.838480
3. Allen, B. (2008). An analysis of the impact of diverse forms of childhood psychological maltreatment on emotional adjustment in early adulthood. Child Maltreatment, 13, 307-312.
4. Allen, B. (2010). Childhood psychological abuse and adult aggression: The mediating role of self-capacities. Journal Interpersonal Violence, 20, 1-18. doi: 10.1177/0886260510383035
5. Battaglia, A. V., Kerr, G. & Stirling, A. E. (2017). Youth athletes' interpretations of punitive coaching practices. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 29 (3), 337-352, DOI: 10.1080/10413200.2016.1271370.
6. Bjørnseth I. & Szabo, A. (2018). Sexual violence against children in sports and exercise: a systematic literature review. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 27 (4),365- 385. doi: 10.1080/10538712.2018.1477222.
7. Brackenridge, C. (1994). Fair play or fair game? Child sexual abuse in sport organisations. Int Rev for Soc of Sport, 29 (3), 287-298. https://doi.org/10.1177/101269029402900304
8. Brackenridge, C. (2001). Spoil sports: Understanding and preventing sexual exploitation in sport. London: Routledge.

9. Brackenridge, C. & Kirby, S. (1997). Playing safe: Assessing the risk of sexual abuse to elite child athletes. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 32 (4), 407–418. https://doi.org/10.1177/101269097032004005 Bourdieu, P. (2016). Sosyoloji meseleleri. Ankara: Heretik Yayınları.
10. Çetin, E. (2022). Antrenör-sporcu ilişkisi duygusal kötü muamele ölçeğinin (ASİDKMÖ) Türkçeye uyarlanması. Spormetre, Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Bilimleri Dergisi, 20(4), 142-156. doi: 10.33689/spormetre.1133456
11. Türkiye’de Genç Sporcuların Maruz Kaldığı Duygusal Kötü Muamelenin Spor Kurumu ile İlişkili Değişkenlerle İncelenmesi
12. Çetin, E. & Hacısoftaoğlu, İ. (2023). Türkiye’de çocuk cinsel istismarının spor kurumundaki boyutu. Toplum ve Sosyal Hizmet, 34(1), 71-87. doi: 10.33417/tsh.1086828
13. David, P. (2005). Human rights in youth sport. New York: Routledge.
14. Dever, A. (2015). Spor sosyolojisi. Ankara: Siyasal Kitabevi.
15. Dietz, C. M., Casey, S. L., Stirling, A. E. & Porter, N. (2015). Development and validation of the coach-athlete relationship emotional maltreatment scale (CAREMS). Athletic Insight, 7(3), 209-226.
16. Eitzen, D. S. (2005). Sport as microcosm of society. İçinde D.S. Eitzen (Der.) Sport in contemporary society: An Anthology. Colorado: Paradigm Publishers.
17. Elias, N. & Dunning, E. (1986). Quest for excitement. Sport and leisure in the civilizing process. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
18. Elias, N. (2002). Spor ve şiddet üzerine. Toplumbilim Dergisi, 16, 89-101. Ercengiz, M. (2020). Çocuğun duygusal istismarının sonuçları. İçinde M. Ercengiz, M.Savcı, E. Uğur (Der.) Çocuğun duygusal istismarı. Ankara: Nobel yayınları.
19. Fasting, K., Brackenridge, C. & Sundgot Borgen, J. (2004). Prevalence of sexual harassment among Norwegian female elite athletes inrelation to sport type. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 39(4), 373-386. doi: 10.1177/1012690204049804
20. Fasting, K., Chroni, S., Hervik, SE. & Knorre N. (2010). Sexual harassment in sport toward females in three European countries. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 46(1), 76-89. https://doi.org/10.1177/10126902103762
21. Gervis, M. & Dunn, N. (2004). The emotional abuse of elite child athletes by their coaches. Child Abuse Review, 13, 215-223. https://doi.org/10.1002/car.843
22. Gervis, M., Rhind, D. & Luzar, A. (2016). Perceptions of emotional abuse in the coach athlete relationship in youth sport: the influence of competitive leveland outcome. Int. J. Sports Sci. Coach, 11(6), 772-779. doi: 10.1177/1747954116676103.
23. Glaser D. (2002). Emotional abuse and neglect (psychological maltreatment): A conceptual framework. Child Abuse & Neglect, 26(6-7), 697-714. doi: 10.1016/S0145-2134(02)00342-3.
24. Hart, S. N., Binggeli, N. J. & Brassard, M. R. (1998). Evidence for the effects of psychological maltreatment. Journal of Emotional Abuse, 1, 27-28. doi: 10.1300/J135v01n01_03
25. Hartill, M. (2005). Sport and the sexually abused male child. Sport, Education and Society, 10 (3), 287-304. doi: 10.1080/13573320500254869
26. Hartill, M., Rulofs, B., Lang, M., Vertommen, T., Allroggen, M., Cirera, E., Diketmueller, R., Kampen, J., Kohl, A., Martin, M., Nanu, I., Neeten, M., Sage, D. & Stativa, E. (2021). CASES: Child abuse in sport: European Statistics, Project Report. Ormskirk, UK: Edge Hill University.
27. Hornor, G. (2012). Emotional maltreatment. J Pediatr Health Care. 26(6), 436-442. doi: 10.1016/j.pedhc.2011.05.004.
28. Infurna, M. R., Reichl, C., Parzer, P., Schimmenti, A., Bifulco, A., & Kaess, M. (2016). Associations between depression and specific childhood experiences of abuse and neglect: A meta-analysis. Journal of affective disorders, 190, 47-55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2015.09.006
29. Jowett, S. (2005). The coach-athlete partnership. The Psychologist, 18(7), 412- 415.
30. Kavanagh, E., Brown, L., & Jones, I. (2017). Elite athletes’ experience of coping with emotional abuse in the coach–athlete relationship. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 29(4), 402-417. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2017.1298165
31. Kerr, G., Stirling, A. & MacPherson, E. (2014). A critical examination of child protection initiatives in sport contexts. Social Sciences, 3(4), 742-757. doi: 10.3390/socsci3040742
32. Leahy, T., Pretty, G., & Tenenbaum, G. (2002). Prevalence of sexual abuse in organised competitive sport in Australia. Journal of sexual aggression, 8(2), 16- 36. https://doi.org/10.1080/13552600208413337
33. McGee, R. A. & Wolfe, D. A. (1991). Psychological maltreatment: toward an operational definition. Development and Psychopathology, 3(1), 3-18. doi: 10.1017/S0954579400005034.
34. Mountjoy M, Vertommen T, Burrows K. & Greinig S. (2020). #SafeSport: safeguarding initiatives at the Youth Olympic Games 2018. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 54, 176-182. doi: 10.1136/bjsports-2019-101461
35. Ohlert, J., Vertommen, T., Rulofs, B., Rau, T. & Allroggen, M. (2021) Elite athletes’ experiences of interpersonal violence in organized sport in Germany, the Netherlands, and Belgium. European Journal of Sport Science, 21(4), 604-613. doi: 10.1080/17461391.2020.1781266.
36. Olympiou, A., Jowett, S. & Duda, J. L. (2008). The psychological interface between the coach-created motivational climate and coach-athlete relationship in team sports. The Sport Psychologist, 22(4), 423-438. doi: 10.1123/tsp.22.4.423
37. Öztürk, A. (2020). Çocuğa kötü muamelenin psikolojik ve gelişimsel sonuçlarını önlemek. Çocuk ve Gençlik Ruh Sağlığı Dergisi, 27(1), 7-9. doi:10.4274/tjcamh.galenos.2020.47955.
38. Pankowiak, A., Woessner, M. N., Parent, S., Vertommen, T., Eime, R., Spaaij, R., Harvey, J. & Parker, A. G. (2022). Psychological, physical, and sexual violence against children in australian community sport: frequency, perpetrator, and victim characteristics. J. Interpers. Violence, 38(3-4), 4338-4365. doi: 10.1177/08862605221114155.
39. Parent, S., & Fortier, K. (2018). Comprehensive overview of the problem of violence against athletes in sport. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 42(4), 227- 246. https://doi.org/10.1177/0193723518759448
40. Slep, A. M., Heyman, R. E., Snarr, J. D., Foster, R. E., Linkh, D., J. & Whitworth, J., D. (2011). Child emotional aggression and abuse: definitions and prevalence. Child Abuse and Neglect, 35(10), 783-796. doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2011.07.002.
41. Spertus, I, L., Yehuda, R., Wong, C. M., Halligan, S. & Seremetis, S. V. (2003). Childhood emotional abuse and neglect as predictors of psychological and physical symptoms in women presenting to a primary care practice. Child Abuse Neglect, 27 (11), 1247-1258. doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2003.05.001
42. Stirling, A. E. & Kerr, G. A. (2008). Elite female swimmers experiences of emotional abuse across time. Journal of Emotional Abuse, 7(4), 89-113. https://doi.org/10.1300/J135v07n04_05
43. Stirling, A. E. & Kerr, G. A. (2009). Abused athletes perceptions of the coach- athlete relationship. Sport in Society, 12(2), 227-239. doi: 10.1080/17430430802591019.
44. Tezcan, M. (2019). Toplumsal değişme ve spor. Ankara University Journal of Faculty of Educational Sciences (JFES), 25(2), 617-623. doi: 10.1501/Egifak_0000000595
45. Theberge N. (1993). The construction of gender in sport: Women, coaching, and the naturalization of difference. Social Problems, 40, 301-313. https://doi.org/10.2307/3096881
46. Uğur, E. (2020). Çocuğun duygusal istismarı ve diğer türleriyle ilişkisi. İçinde M. Ercengiz, M.Savcı, E. Uğur (Der.). Çocuğun Duygusal İstismarı. Ankara: Nobel yayınları.
47. Wilinsky C. L. & McCabe, A. (2021). A review of emotional and sexual abuse of elite child athletes by their coaches. Sports Coaching Review, 10 (1), 84-109, doi: 10.1080/21640629.2020.1775378 Willson, E., Kerr, G., Stirling, A., & Buono, S. (2022). Prevalence of maltreatment among Canadian National Team athletes. Journal of interpersonal violence, 37 (21-22), 19857-19879. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260521104509 Vertommen, T., Veldhovenc, N. S., Wouterse, K., Kampenf, J. K., Brackenridge, C., Rhind, D., Neels, K. & Eede, F. (2016). Interpersonal violence against children in sport in the Netherlands and Belgium. Child Abuse and Neglect, 51, 223-236. doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.10.006 Young, K. (2013). Sport, violence and society, London: Routledge.