COVID-19 Pandemisi Gölgesindeki Salgın: Yas

Abstract

İnsan yaşamında uyum sağlanılması en zorlu deneyimlerden birisi ölümdür. COVID-19 pandemisi sürecinde ve yeni normal olarak tanımlanan karmaşık dönemde bireyler sevdiklerini kaybetmekte, geride kalanlar, her bir ölümle eşsiz bağlarını yitirmektedir. Tedavi sürecinde önemli güçlüklerle karşılaşması, ölüme ilişkin ritüellerin sekteye uğraması, sosyal destek kaynaklarından tam anlamıyla yararlanılamaması, ani ve çoklu ölümler, geride kalan bireylerin karmaşık yasla ve buna bağlı psikososyal sorunlarla karşılaşma riskini artırmaktadır. Derleme niteliğindeki bu çalışma iki temel bölümden oluşmaktadır. Birinci bölümde COVID-19 pandemisi, ölümler ve yas bağlamında incelenmekte, pandemiye özgü koşulların yas sürecinde oluşturduğu riskler irdelenmektedir. Çalışmanın ikinci bölümünde ise pandemi döneminde yas özelinde yürütülecek psikososyal müdahaleler, müdahalenin temel bileşenleri ve yas modelleri ışığında ele alınmaktadır. Bu çalışmanın, başta sosyal hizmet uzmanları ve psikologlar olmak üzere yas alanında çalışan tüm profesyonellerin iyi ve kanıta dayalı uygulamalarına esin kaynağı olacağı değerlendirilmektedir.

Keywords

• pandemi
• kayıp
• yas
• psikososyal müdahale

The Epidemic in the Shadow of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Grief

Abstract

One of the most difficult experiences to adapt to in human life is death. During the COVID-19 pandemic and the complex period defined as the new normal, individuals lose their loved ones, and those left behind lose their unique ties with each death. Encountering significant difficulties in the treatment process, interruption of death rituals, inability to fully utilize social support resources and sudden/multiple deaths increase the risk of individuals who are left behind to encounter complex grief and related psychosocial problems. This review article consists of two main parts. In the first part, the COVID-19 pandemic is examined in the context of deaths and grief, and the risks posed by pandemic-specific conditions during the grieving process are examined. In the second part of the study, psychosocial interventions to be carried out in grief during the pandemic period are discussed in the light of the main components of the intervention and grief models. It is considered that this study will inspire good and evidence-based practices of all professionals working in the field of grief, especially social workers and psychologists.

Keywords

• pandemic
• loss
• grief
• psychosocial intervention

References

1. APA. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-V). American Psychiatric Association Washington, DC.
2. Bennett, K. M., Gibbons, K., & Mackenzie-Smith, S. (2010). Loss And Restoration In Later Life: An Examination Of Dual Process Model Of Coping with Bereavement. Omega-Journal of Death and Dying, 61(4), 315-332.
3. Bildik, T. (2013). Ölüm, Kayıp, Yas ve Patolojik Yas. Ege Tıp Dergisi, 52(4), 223-229.
4. Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and Loss: cilt 2 içinde Attachment and Loss: Separation, Anxiety and Anger (ss. 1-429). London: The Hogarth Press.
5. Castle, J., & Phillips, W. L. (2003). Grief Rituals: Aspects that Facilitate Adjustment to Bereavement. Journal of Loss &Trauma, 8(1), 41-71.
6. Chen, N., Zhou, M., Dong, X., Qu, J., Gong, F., Han, Y., ... & Zhang, L. (2020). Epidemiological and Clinical Characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 Novel Coronavirus Pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a Descriptive Study. The Lancet, 395(10223), 507-513.
7. Corr, C. A. (1993). Coping with Dying: Lessons that We Should and Should not Learn from the Work of Elisabeth Kübler-Ross. Death Studies, 17(1), 69-83.
8. Doka, K. J. (2005). Ethics, End-of-Life Decisions and Grief. Mortality, 10(1), 83-90.

9. Dünya Sağlık Örgütü. (2020). WHO Director-General's opening remarks at the media briefing on COVID-19-11 Mart 2020. https://www.who.int/director-general/speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-opening-remarks-at-the-media-briefing-on-covid
10. Dünya Sağlık Örgütü. (2022). WHO Coronavirus (COVID-19) Dashboard. https://covid19.who.int/
11. Eisma, M., Lenferink, L., Chow, A., Chan, C., & Li, J. (2019). Complicated Grief and Posttraumatic Stress Symptom Profiles in Bereaved Earthquake Survivors: Latent Class Analyses. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 10 (sup1).
12. Eisma, M. C., Boelen, P. A., & Lenferink, L. I. (2020). Prolonged Grief Disorder Following the Coronavirus (COVID-19) Pandemic. Psychiatry Research, 288, 113031.
13. Engel, G. L. (1961). Is grief a disease? A challenge for medical research. Psychosomatic Medicine, 23, 18-22.
14. Freud, S. (1917). Mourning and Melancholia. The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, 14, 237-258.
15. Folkman, S. (2010). Revised coping theory and the process of bereavement. M. S. Stroebe, R. O. Hansson, W. Stroebe ve H. Schut (Eds.), Handbook of Bereavement Research: Consequences, Coping and Care (s. 563-584). Washington: American Psychological Association
16. Gillies, J., R. A. Neimeyer (2006). Loss, Grief, and the Search for Significance: Toward a Model of Meaning Reconstruction in Bereavement. Journal of Constructivist Psychology, 19(1), 31-65.
17. Gupta, S., Hayek, S. S., Wang, W., Chan, L., Mathews, K. S., Melamed, M. L., ... & Cairl, N. S. (2020). Factors Associated With Death in Critically Ill Patients With Coronavirus Disease 2019 in the US. JAMA Internal Medicine, 180(11), 1436-1447.
18. Havighurst, R. J. (1956). Research on the Developmental-Task Concept. The School Review, 64(5), 215-223.
19. Hibberd, R. (2013). Meaning Reconstruction in Bereavement: Sense and significance. Death Studies. 37(7), 670-692.
20. Holland, J. M., Currier, J. M., & Neimeyer, R. A. (2006). Meaning Reconstruction in the First Two Years of Bereavement: The Role of Sense-Making and Benefit-Finding. Omega-Journal of Death and Dying 53(3), 175-191.
21. Imber‐Black, E. (2020). Rituals in the Time of COVID‐19: Imagination, Responsiveness, and the Human Spirit. Family Process, 59(3), 912-921.
22. İnkaya, A. Ç., Er, A. G., Demir, A. U., Ertenli, A. İ., Alp, A., Topeli İskit, A., ... & Taş, Z. (2021). COVID-19 Pandemi Raporu (20 Mart-20 Kasım 2020). Hacettepe Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi.
23. James, J. W., R. Friedman (2009). The Grief Recovery Handbook, 20th Anniversary Expanded Edition: The Action Program for Moving Beyond Death, Divorce, and other Losses Including Health, Career, and Faith, Harper Collins.
24. Johns Hopkins University. (2022). COVID-19 Dashboard by the Center for Systems Science and Engineering (CSSE) Johns Hopkins University. https://coronavirus.jhu.edu/map.html
25. Lindemann, E. (1944). Symptomatology and Management of Acute Grief. American Journal of Psychiatry, 101(2), 141-148.
26. Lobb, E. A., Kristjanson, L. J., Aoun, S. M., Monterosso, L., Halkett, G. K., & Davies, A. (2010). Predictors of Complicated Grief: A Systematic Review of Empirical Studies. Death Studies, 34(8), 673-698.
27. Mayland, C. R., Harding, A. J., Preston, N., & Payne, S. (2020). Supporting Adults Bereaved through COVID-19: a Rapid Review of the Impact of Previous Pandemics on Grief and Bereavement. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 60(2), 33-39.
28. Nakajima, S. (2018). Complicated Grief: Recent Developments in Diagnostic Criteria and Treatment. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society: Biological Sciences, 373 (1754): 20170273.
29. Neimeyer, R. A. (2001). Reauthoring Life Narratives: Grief Therapy as Meaning Reconstruction. Israel Journal of Psychiatry, 38 (3/4).
30. Neimeyer, R. A. (2019). Meaning Reconstruction in Bereavement: Development of a Research Program. Death Studies, 43(2), 79-91.
31. O'Connor, M.-F. (2003). Making Meaning of Life Events: Theory, Evidence, and Research Directions for an Alternative Model. Omega-Journal of Death and Dying, 46(1), 51-75.
32. Parkes, C. M. (1970). The First Year of Bereavement: A Longitudinal Study of the Reaction of London Widows to The Death Of Their Husbands. Psychiatry. 33(4), 444-467.
33. Parkes, C. M., Prigerson H. G. (2013). Bereavement: Studies of Grief in Adult Life, Routledge.
34. Parohan, M., Yaghoubi, S., Seraji, A., Javanbakht, M. H., Sarraf, P., & Djalali, M. (2020). Risk factors for Mortality in Patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Infection: a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies. The Aging Male, 23(5), 1416-1424.
35. Pearlman, L. A., Wortman, C. B., Feuer, C. A., Farber, C. H., & Rando, T. A. (2014). Treating Traumatic Bereavement: A Practitioner's Guide, Guilford Publications.
36. Rando, T. A. (2013). On Achieving Clarity Regarding Complicated Grief: Lessons from Clinical Practice. M. S. Stroebe, H. Schut ve J. Van Den Bout (Eds.), Complicated Grief: Scientific Foundations for Health Care Professionals (s. 40–54). New York: Routledge
37. Rich, S. (2002). Caregiver grief: Taking care of Ourselves and Our Patients. International Journal of Trauma Nursing, 8(1), 24-28.
38. Shear, K., Frank, E., Houck, P. R., & Reynolds, C. F. (2005). Treatment Of Complicated Grief: A Randomized Controlled Trial. JAMA, 293(21), 2601-2608.
39. Shear, M. K. (2012). Grief and Mourning Gone Awry: Pathway and Course of Complicated Grief. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 14(2), 119.
40. Shear, M. K., Wang, Y., Skritskaya, N., Duan, N., Mauro, C., & Ghesquiere, A. (2014). Treatment of Complicated Grief in Elderly Persons: a Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA, 71(11), 1287-1295.
41. Shear, M. K. (2015). Complicated Grief. New England Journal of Medicine 372(2), 153-160.
42. Schut, M. S., Henk (1999). The Dual Process Model of Coping with Bereavement: Rationale and Description. Death Studies, 23(3), 197-224.
43. Shore, J. C., Gelber, M. W., Koch, L. M., & Sower, E. (2016). Anticipatory grief: an evidence-based approach. Journal of Hospice & Palliative Nursing, 18(1), 15-19.
44. Statista. (2022). Coronavirus (COVID-19) Deaths Worldwide per One Million Population as of Aralık 13, 2021, by Country. https://www.statista.com/statistics/1104709/coronavirus-deaths-worldwide-per-million-inhabitants/
45. T.C. Sağlık Bakanlığı. (2021, 06 Ocak 2022). https://covid19.saglik.gov.tr/TR-66935/genel-koronavirus-tablosu.html
46. Tededeschi, R. G. (1998). Posttraumatic Growth: Future Directions. W: Posttraumatic Growth: Positive Changes in the Aftermath of Crisis. Park, Calhoun.
47. TÜBİTAK. (2022, 05 Ocak 2022). Türkiye'de Covid-19. https://covid19.tubitak.gov.tr/
48. Varshney, P., Prasad, G., Chandra, P. S., & Desai, G. (2021). Grief in the COVID-19 Times: Are We looking at Complicated Grief in the Future? Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 43(1), 70-73.
49. Wallace, C. L., Wladkowski, S. P., Gibson, A., & White, P. (2020). Grief During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Considerations for Palliative Care Providers. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 60(1), 70-76.
50. Walsh, F. (2020). Loss and Resilience in the Time of COVID‐19: Meaning Making, Hope, and Transcendence. Family Process, 59(3), 898-911.
51. Walsh, K. (2021). Grief and Loss: Theories and Skills for the Helping Professions. Waveland Press.
52. Walter, T. (1996). A New Model of Grief: Bereavement and Biography. Mortality 1(1), 7-25.
53. Wu, C., Chen, X., Cai, Y., Zhou, X., Xu, S., Huang, H., ... & Song, Y. (2020). Risk Factors Associated with Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome and Death in Patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019 Pneumonia in Wuhan, China. JAMA, 180(7), 934-943.
54. Wetherell, J. L. (2012). Complicated Grief Therapy as a New Treatment Approach. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 14(2), 159.
55. Worden, J. W. (2018). Grief Counseling and Grief Therapy: A Handbook for the Mental Health Practitioner, Springer Publishing.
56. Young, J. E., Klosko, J. S., Weishhar, M. E., Soylu, T. V., & Özakkaş, T. (2009). Şema Terapi: Terapistin Rehberi. Litera Yayıncılık.