Delivering Behaviour Change Techniques via Short Text Messages to Promote Active Travel

Abstract

Active travel has many benefits for both individuals and societies. While the number of interventions aiming to promote active travel increases, it is usually not easy to deliver those interventions, identify ‘active components’ of them, and/or replicate them. The current paper reports two studies testing interventions that used SMS messages to deliver behaviour change techniques (BCTs) based on the Control Theory (i.e., goal-setting (behaviour), action planning, self-monitoring of behaviour). Study 1 sought to increase the use of a bike share scheme. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three experimental groups that received messages for three BCTs (n = 26), one BCT (n = 29), or no BCTs (n = 40) and were followed up one month later. The effect of intervention on bike use was significant when two intervention groups were combined and compared to the control group. Study 2 tested an intervention to decrease car use. Participants were randomly allocated to one of two experimental groups that receive three BCTs (n = 29) versus no BCTs (n = 32). The effect of the intervention on car use was marginally significant. The results of the two studies suggest that interventions delivering BCTs via SMS message may be used to promote active travel, although both studies were underpowered. Given the relative ease and low cost of delivering psychosocial interventions via SMS messages, the potential public health impact at a population level is, nonetheless, likely to be important.

Keywords

• Behaviour change techniques (BCTs)
• intervention
• text message
• active travel

Davranış Değiştirme Tekniklerini Kısa Mesajlarla İleterek Aktif Ulaşım Davranışının Arttırılması

Abstract

Aktif ulaşımın hem bireyler hem de toplumlar için pek çok yararı vardır. Bu alanda yapılan müdahale çalışmalarının sayısı günden güne artsa da bu müdahaleleri uygulamak, ‘aktif bileşenlerini’ tespit etmek ve/veya tekrar uygulamak her zaman kolay olmamaktadır. Bu çalışma Kontrol Teorisi’ne dayanan davranış değiştirme tekniklerini (hedef koyma (davranış), eylem planlama, davranışın öz-izlenmesi) SMS mesajlarıyla ileterek aktif ulaşımı arttırmayı amaçlayan iki müdahale çalışmasını sunmaktadır. Çalışma 1 kiralanan bisikletlerin kullanımını arttırmayı amaçlamıştır. Katılımcılar kısa mesajlarla üç davranış değiştirme tekniğinin kısa uygulandığı (n = 26), 1 davranış değiştirme tekniğinin uygulandığı (n = 29), veya hiçbir davranış değiştirme tekniğinin uygulanmadığı (n = 40) gruplardan birine seçkisiz olarak atanmışlar ve ilk anketten bir ay sonra ikinci ankete katılmışlardır. İki müdahale grubu birleştirilerek kontrol grubuyla karşılaştırıldığında etkinin anlamlı olduğu görülmüştür. Çalışma 2 geliştirilen müdahalenin araba kullanma davranışını azaltıp azaltamayacağını test etmiştir. Katılımcılar 3 davranış değiştirme tekniğinin uygulandığı (n = 29), veya hiçbir davranış değiştirme tekniğinin uygulanmadığı (n = 32) gruplardan birine rastgele olarak atanmışlardır. İlk anketten bir ay sonra doldurulan ikinci ankette katılımcılara geçen süre boyunca kaç kez arabayla işe/okula gidip geldikleri sorulmuştur. Yapılan müdahale çalışmasının marjinal derecede anlamlı olduğu görülmüştür. Her ne kadar düşük katılımcı sayılarına sahip olsalar da yapılan bu iki müdahale çalışması göstermiştir ki kısa mesajlarla iletilerek uygulanan davranış değiştirme teknikleri aktif ulaşımın arttırılması için kullanılabilir. Psikososyal müdahale çalışmalarını kısa mesajlarla iletebilmenin uygulama kolaylığı ve ucuzluğu da göz önüne alındığında, bu tür müdahale çalışmalarının toplum sağlığına potansiyel etkileri oldukça yüksek olabilir.

Keywords

• Davranış Değiştirme Teknikleri
• Kısa Mesaj
• Müdahale
• Aktif Ulaşım

References

1. Anable, J. (2005). ‘Compacent car addicts’ or ‘aspiring environmentalists’? Identifying travel behaviour segments using attitude theory. Transport Policy, 12, 65-78. doi:10.1016/j.tranpol.2004.11.004
2. Armanasco, A. A., Miller, Y. D., Fjeldsoe, B. S., & Marshall, A. L. (2017). Preventive health behaviour change text message interventions: A meta-analysis. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 52, 391-402. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2016.10.042
3. Balcı, V., Özbek, O., Koçak, F., & Çeyiz, S.(2018). Kent yaşamında bisiklet kullanım engellerinin belirlenmesi. Journal of Human Sciences, 15(1), 35-50. doi:10.14687/jhs.v15i1.4928
4. Bird, E. L., Baker, G., Mutrie, N., Ogilvie, D., Sahlqvist, S., & Powell, J. (2013). Behavior change techniques used to promote walking and cycling: A systematic review. Health Psychology, 32, 829-838. doi:10.1037/a0032078
5. Braun, L. M., Rodriguez, D. A., Cole-Hunter, T., Ambros, A., Donaire-Gonzalez, D., Jerrett, M., … & de Nazelle, A. (2016). Short-term planning and policy interventions to promote cycling in urban centers: Findings from a commute mode choice analysis in Barcelona, Spain. Transportation Research Part A, 89, 164-183. doi:10.1016/j.tra.2016.05.007
6. Bruijn, G. D., & Gardner, B. (2010). Active commuting and habit strength: An interactive and discriminant analysis approach. American Journal of Health Promotion, 25, e27-e36. doi:10.4278/ajhp.090521-QUAN-170
7. Bruijn, G. D., Kremers, S. P. J., Schaalma, H., Mechelen, W., & Brug, J. (2005). Determinants of adolescent bicycle use for transportation and snacking behaviour. Preventive Medicine, 40, 658-667. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2004.09.003
8. Carter, M. C., Burley, V. J., Nykjaer, C., & Cade, J. E. (2013). Adherence to a smartphone application for weight loss comparet to website and paper dairy: Pilot randomized control trial. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 15, e32. doi:10.2196/jmir.2283

9. Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1982). Control theory: A useful framework for personality-social, clinical, and health psychology. Psychological Bulletin, 92, 111-135. doi:0033-2909/82/9201-011
10. Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (2002). Control processes and self-organization as complementary principles underlying behaviour. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 6, 304-315. doi:10.1207/S15327957PSPR0604_05
11. Cerin, E., Nathan, A., Van Cauwenberg, J., Barnett, D. W., & Barnett, A. (2017). The neighbourhood physical environment and active travel in older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Behavioural Nutrition and Physical Activity, 14, 1-23. doi:10.1186/s12966-017-0471-5
12. Cheng, L., Chen, X., Yang, S., Cao, Z., De Vos, J., & Witlox, F. (2019). Active travel for active ageing in China: The role of built environment. Journal of Transport Geography, 76, 142-152. doi:10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2019.03.010
13. Chillon, P., Evenson, K. R., Vaughn, A., & Ward, D. S. (2011). A systematic review of interventions for promoting active transportation to school. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 8. doi:10.1186/1479-5868-8-10
14. Coombes, E., & Jones, A. (2016). Gamification of active travel to school: A pilot evaluation of the Beat the Street physical activity intervention. Health and Place, 39, 62-69. doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2016.03.001
15. Davison, K. K., & Lawson, C. T. (2006). Do attributes in the physical environment influence children's physical activity? A review of the literature. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 3(1), 1-17. doi:10.1186/1479-5868-3-19
16. Department for Transport (2018a). Analysis from the National Travel Survey. Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/674568/analysis-from-the-national-travel-survey.pdf
17. Department for Transport (2018b). Household car ownership by region and Rural-Urban Classification: England, 2002/03 to 2016/17. Retrieved from https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/729561/nts9902.ods
18. Department for Transport (2018, December 10). Government publishes £1.2 billion plan to increase cycling and walking. Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/government/news/government-publishes-12-billion-plan-to-increase-cycling-and-walking
19. Department for Transport (2020). Proportion of adults that cycle, by frequency, purpose and local authority, England, 2018-2019. Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/walking-and-cycling-statistics
20. de Nazelle, A., Nieuwenhuijsen, M. J., Anto, J. M., Brauer, M., Briggs, D., …, & Lebret, E. (2011). Improving health through policies that promote active travel: A review of evidence to support integrated health impact assessment. Environmental Health, 37, 766-777. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2011.02.003
21. de Vries, S. I., Hopman-Rock, M., Bakker, I., Hirasing, R. A., & Mechelen, W. (2010). Built environmental correlates of walking and cycling in Dutch urban children: Results from the SPACE study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 7, 2309-2324. doi:10.3390/ijerph7052309
22. Diniz, I. M. S., Duarte, M. F. S., Peres, K. G., Oliveira, E. S. A., & Berndt, A. (2015). Active commuting by bicycle: Results of an educational intervention study. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 12, 801-807. doi:10.1123/jpah.2013-0215
23. Doğru, O. C., Webb, T. L., & Norman, P. (2021). What is the best way to promote cycling? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 81, 144-157. doi:10.1016/j.trf.2021.06.002
24. Gerber, B. S., Stolley, M. R., Thompson, A. L., Sharp, L. K., & Fitzgibbon, M. L. (2009). Mobile phone text messaging to promote healthy behaviors and weight loss maintenance: A feasibility study. Health Informatics Journal, 15, 17-25. doi:10.1177/1460458208099865
25. Gilson, N., McKenna, J., Cooke, C., & Brown, W. (2007). Walking towards health in a university community: A feasibility study. Preventive Medicine: An International Journal Devoted to Practice and Theory, 44, 167–169. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2006.09.012
26. Graham-Rowe, E., Skippon, S., Gardner, B., & Abraham, C. (2011). Can we reduce car use and, if so, how? A review of available evidence. Transportation Research Part A, 45, 401-418. doi:10.1016/j.tra.2011.02.001
27. Griffin, J. B., Struempler, B., Funderburk, K., Parmer, S. M., Tran, C., & Wadsworth, D. D. (2018). My Quest, an intervention using text messaging to improve dietary and physical activity behaviors and promote weight loss in low-income women. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 50, 11-18. doi:10.1016/j.jneb.2017.09.007
28. Hall, A. K., Cole-Lewis, H., & Bernhardt, J. M. (2015). Mobile text messaging for health: A systematic review of reviews. Annual Reviews of Public Health, 36, 393-415. doi:10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031914-122855
29. Hartog, J. J., Boogaard, H., Nijland, H., & Hoek, G. (2010). Do the benefits of cycling outweight the risks? Environmental Health Perspectives, 118, 1109-1116. doi:10.1289/ehp.0901747
30. Hedin, B., Katzeff, C., Eriksson, E., & Pargman, D. (2019). A systematic review of digital behaviour change interventions for more sustainable food consumption. Sustainability, 11(9), 2638. doi:10.3390/su11092638
31. Heinen, E., & Ogilvie, D. (2016). Variability in baseline travel behaviour as a predictor of changes in commuting by active travel, car and public transport: A natural experimental study. Journal of Transport & Health, 3(1), 77-85. doi:10.1016/j.jth.2015.11.002
32. Hemmingson, E., Udden, J., Neovius, M., Ekelund, U., & Rossner, S. (2009). Increased physical activity in abdominally obese women through support for changed commuting habits: A randomized clinical trial. International Journal of Obesity, 33, 645-652. doi:10.1038/ijo.2009.77
33. Holman, L., Head, M. L., Lanfear, R., & Jennions, M. D. (2015). Evidence of experimental bias in the life sciences: Why we need blind data recording. PLoS Biology, 13(7), e1002190. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1002190
34. Ikeda, E., Stewart, T., Garrett, N., Egli, V., Mandic, S., Hosking, J., …, & Smith, M. (2018). Built environment associates of active school travel in New Zealand children and youth: A systematic meta-analysis using individual participant data. Journal of Transport and Health, 9, 117-131. doi:10.1016/j.jth.2018.04.007
35. Jones, T. (2012). Getting the British back on bicycles – the effects of urban traffic-free paths on everyday cycling. Transport Policy, 20, 138-149. doi:10.1016/j.tranpol.2012.01.014
36. Lanzini, P., & Khan, S. A. (2017). Shedding light on the psychological and behavioral determinants of travel mode choice: A meta-analysis. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 48, 13-27. doi:10.1016/j.trf.2017.04.020
37. Larouche, R., Mammen, G., Rowe, D. A., & Faulkner, G. (2018). Effectiveness of active school transport interventions: A systematic review and update. BMC Public Health, 18, e206. doi:10.1186/s12889-017-5005-1
38. Lenhard, W. & Lenhard, A. (2016). Calculation of Effect Sizes. Retrieved from https://www.psychometrica.de/effect_size.html. Dettelbach (Germany): Psychometrica. doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.17823.92329
39. Liao, Y. (2016). Association of sociodemographic and perceived environmental factors with public bicycle use among Taiwanese urban adults. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 13. doi:10.3390/ijerph13030340
40. Mantzari, E., Vogt, F., Shemilt, I., Wei, Y., Higgins, J. P. T., & Marteau, T. M. (2015). Personal financial incentives for changing habitual health-related behaviors: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Preventive Medicine, 75, 75-85. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2015.03.001
41. McDonald, N. C., Yang, Y., Abbott, S. M., & Bullock, A. N. (2013). Impact of the Safe Routes to School program on walking and biking: Eugene, Oregon study. Transport Policy, 29, 243-248. doi:10.1016/j.tranpol.2013.06.007
42. McKay, F. H., Cheng, C., Wright, A., Shill, J., Stephens, H., & Uccellini, M. (2018). Evaluating mobile phone applications for health behaviour change: A systematic review. Journal of Telemedicine and Telecare, 24, 22-30. doi:10.1177/1357633X16673538
43. Merom, D., Miller, Y., Lymer, S., & Bauman, A. (2005). Effect of Australia's Walk to Work Day campaign on adults' active commuting and physical activity behavior. American Journal of Health Promotion, 19(3), 159-162. doi:10.4278/0890-1171-19.3.159
44. Michie, S., Abraham, C., Whittington, C., McAteer, J., & Gupta, S. (2009). Effective techniques in healthy eating and physical activity interventions: A meta-regression. Health Psychology, 28, 690-701. doi:10.1037/a0016136
45. Michie, S., Richardson, M., Johnston, M., Abraham, C., Francis, J., Hardeman, W., …, & Wood, C. E. (2013). The behavior change technique taxonomy (v1) of 93 hierarchically clustered techniques: Building an international consensus for the reporting of behavior change interventions. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 46, 81-95. doi:10.1007/s12160-013-9486-6
46. Militello, L. K., Kelly, S. A., & Melnyk, B. M. (2012). Systematic review of text-messaging interventions to promote healthy behaviors in pediatric and adolescent populations: Implications for clinical practice and research. Worldviews on Evidence-Based Nursing, 9, 66-77. doi:10.1111/j.1741-6787.2011.00239.x
47. Milton, K., Clemes, S., & Bull, F. (2013). Can a single question provide an accurate measure of physical activity? British Journal of Sports Medicine, 47, 44-48. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2011-090899
48. Mutrie, N., Carney, C., Blamey, A., Crawford, F., Aitchison, T., & Whitelaw, A. (2002). “Walk in to work out”: A randomised controlled trial of a self help intervention to promote active commuting. Public Health Policy and Practice, 56, 407-412. doi:10.1136/jech.56.6.407
49. Napolitano, M. A., Fotheringham, M., Tate, D., Sciamanna, C., Leslie, E., Owen, N., ... & Marcus, B. (2003). Evaluation of an internet-based physical activity intervention: A preliminary investigation. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 25(2), 92-99. doi:10.1207/S15324796ABM2502_04
50. Nehme, E. K., Perez, A., Ranjit, N., Amick, B. C., & Kohl, H. W. (2016). Sociodemographic factors, population density, and bicycling for transportation in the United States. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 13, 36-43. doi:10.1123/jpah.2014-0469
51. Newton, K. H., Wiltshire, E. J., & Elley, C. R. (2009). Pedometers and text messaging to increase physical activity. Clinical Care/Education/Nutrition/Psychosocial Research, 32, 813-815. doi:10.2337/dc08-1974
52. Norwood, P., Eberth, B., Farrar, S., Anable, J., & Ludbrook, A. (2014). Active travel intervention and physical activity behaviour: An evaluation. Social Science and Medicine, 113, 50-58. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.05.003
53. O’Brian, N., McDonald, S., Araujo-Soares, V., Lara, J., Errington, L., Godfrey, A., …, & Sniehotta, F. (2015). The features of interventions associated with long-term effectiveness of physical activity interventions in adults aged 55-70 years: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Health Psychology Review, 9, 417-433. doi:10.1080/17437199.2015.1012177
54. Oja, P., Titze, S., Bauman, A., Geus, B., Krenn, P, Reger-Nash, B., & Kohlberger, T. (2011). Health benefits of cycling: A systematic review. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, 21, 496-509. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0838.2011.01299.x
55. Panter, J. R., Jones, A. P., & Van Sluijs, E. M. (2008). Environmental determinants of active travel in youth: a review and framework for future research. International Journal of Behavioural Nutrition and Physical Activity, 5(1), 1-14. doi:10.1186/1479-5868-5-34
56. Petrunoff, N., Rissel, C., Wen, L. M., & Martin, J. (2015). Carrots and sticks vs carrots: Comparing approaches to workplace travel plans using disincentives for driving and incentives for active travel. Journal of Transport & Health, 2, 563-567. doi:10.1016/j.jth.2015.06.007
57. Piwek, L., Joinson, A., & Morvan, J. (2015). The use of self-monitoring solutions amongst cyclists: An online survey and empirical study. Transportation Research Part A, 77, 126-136. doi:10.1016/j.tra.2015.04.010
58. Pollard, T. M., & Wagnild, J. M. (2017). Gender differences in walking (for leisure, transport and in total) across adult life: A systematic review. BMC Public Health, 17, 1-11. doi:10.1186/s12889-017-4253-4
59. Pucher, J., & Buehler, R. (2008). Making cycling irresistible: Lessons from the Netherlands, Denmark and Germany. Transport Reviews, 28, 495-528. doi:10.1080/01441640701806612
60. Pucher, J., Buehler, R., Bassett, D. R., & Dannenberg, A. L. (2010). Walking and cycling to health: A comparative analysis of city, state, and international data. American Journal of Public Health, 100, 1986-1992. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2009.189324
61. Pucher, J., Buehler, R., & Seinen, M. (2011). Bicycling renaissance in North America? An update and re-appraisal of cycling trends and policies. Transportation Research Part A, 45, 251-275. doi:10.1016/j.tra.2011.03.001
62. Pucher, J., Dill, J., & Handy, S. (2010). Infrastructure, programs, and policies to increase bicycling: An international review. Preventive Medicine, 50, 106-125. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2009.07.028
63. Rissel, C. E. (2009). Active travel: A climate change mitigation strategy with co-benefits for health. New South Wales Public Health Bulletin, 20, 10-13. doi:10.1071/NB08043
64. Rissel, C. E., New, C., Wen, L. M., Merom, D., Bauman, A. E., & Garrard, J. (2010). The effectiveness of community-based cycling promotion: Findings from the Cycling Connecting Communities project in Sydney, Australia. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 7. doi:10.1186/1479-5868-7-8
65. Rose, T., Barker, M., Jacob, C. M., Morrison, L., Lawrence, W., Strömmer, S., …, & Baird, J. (2017). A systematic review of digital interventions for improving the diet and physical activity behaviors of adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 61, 669-677. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2017.05.024
66. Rothman, L., Macpherson, A. K., Ross, T., & Buliung, R. N. (2018). The decline in active school transportation (AST): A systematic review of the factors related to AST and changes in school transport over time in North America. Preventive Medicine, 111, 314-322. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2017.11.018
67. Schmiedeskamp, P., & Zhao, W. (2016). Estimating daily bicycle counts in Seattle, Washington, from seasonal and weather factors. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2593, 94-102. doi:10.3141/2593-12
68. Schoner, J. E., Cao, J., & Levinson, D. M. (2015). Catalysts and magnets: Built environment and bicycle commuting. Journal of Transport Geography, 47, 100-108. doi:10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2015.07.007
69. Schulz, K. F., Altman, D. G., & Moher, D. (2010). CONSORT 2010 statement: updated guidelines for reporting parallel group randomised trials. Trials, 11(1), 1-8. doi:10.1186/1745-6215-11-32
70. Stephens, J., & Allen, J. (2013). Mobile phone interventions to increase physical activity and reduce weight: A systematic review. Journal of Cardiovascular Nursing, 28, 320-329. doi:10.1097/JCN.0b013e318250a3e7
71. Tainio, M., Andersen, Z. J., Nieuwenhuijsen, M. J., Hu, L., de Nazelle, A., An, R., ... & de Sá, T. H. (2021). Air pollution, physical activity and health: A mapping review of the evidence. Environment International, 147, 105954. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2020.105954
72. Thomas Craig, K. J., Morgan, L. C., Chen, C. H., Michie, S., Fusco, N., Snowdon, J. L., ... & Sill, S. (2020). Systematic review of context-aware digital behavior change interventions to improve health. Translational Behavioral Medicine. doi:10.1093/tbm/ibaa099
73. Turner-McGrievy, G., & Tate, D. (2011). Tweets, apps, and pods: Results of the 6-month mobile pounds off digitally (Mobile POD) randomized weight-loss intervention among adults. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 13, e120. doi:10.2196/jmir.1841
74. Ünal Ankaya, F., & Gülgün Aslan, B. (2020). Kent İçi ulaşımda bisiklet yollarının planlaması; dünya ve Türkiye örnekleri. Ulusal Çevre Bilimleri Araştırma Dergisi, 3(1), 1-10.
75. Verhoeven, H., Simons, D., Cauwenberg, J. V., Dyck, D. V., Vandelanotte, C., Geus, B. D., ..., & Deforche, B. (2016). Promoting active transport in older adolescents before they obtain their driving licence: A matched control intervention study. PLoS ONE, 11, 1-20. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0168594
76. Wanner M., Gotschi T., Martin-Diener E., Kahlmeier S., & Martin B. (2012). Active transport, physical activity, and body weight in adults: A systematic review. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 42, 493–502. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2012.01.030
77. Webb, T. L., Joseph, J., Yardley, L., & Michie, S. (2010). Using the internet to promote health behaviour change: A systematic review and meta-analysis of the impact of theoretical basis, use of behaviour change techniques, and mode of delivery on efficacy. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 12, 1-18. doi:10.2196/jmir.1376
78. West, R. (2007). The clinical significance of ‘small’ effects of smoking cessation treatments. Addiction, 102, 506-509. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2007.01750.x
79. Wojcicki, T. R., Grigsby-Toussaint, D., Hillman, C. H., Huhman, M., & McAuley, E. (2014). Promoting physical activity in low-active adolescents via Facebook: A pilot randomized controlled trial to test feasibility. Journal of Medical Internet Research – Research Protocols, 3, e56. doi:10.2196/resprot.3013
80. Woodcock, J., Edwards, P., Tonne, C., Armstrong, B. G., Ashiru, O., Nanister, D., … & Roberts, I. (2009). Public health benefits of strategies to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions: urban land transport. Lancet, 374, 1930-1943. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61714-1
81. Woods, R., & Masthoff, J. (2017). A comparison of car driving, public transport and cycling experiences in three European cities. Transportation Research Part A, 103, 211-222. doi:10.1016/j.tra.2017.06.002
82. Yang, L., Sahlqvist, S., McMinn, A., Griffin, S. J., & Ogilvie, D. (2010). Interventions to promote cycling: Systematic review. British Medical Journal, 341:c5293. doi:10.1136/bmj.c5293