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The Image of Imperial Russia as an Enemy in the Iranians’ Collective Memory

Year 2025, , 1 - 18

Saeed Khavarinejad

https://doi.org/10.33458/uidergisi.1760083

Abstract

This research tried to uncover the historical factors that have instilled a deep-rooted distrust of Russia in the Iranians’ collective memory. The researcher employed a case study strategy to examine historical empirical data and analyzed the consequences of the conflicts between Persia/Iran and Imperial Russia through collective trauma theory. The research discovered that 1) the 9th–12th clashes and the Russo-Persian Wars in the 17th–19th centuries and their subsequent treaties of Gulistan, Turkmenchay, and later, Akhal, and 2) Imperial Russia’s interventions in Iran during Constitutional Revolution, including the shelling of the Iranian Parliament in 1911, threatening Iranian government by issuing two ultimatums in 1911, the occupation and atrocity against Iranians in Tabriz in 1909–1918, the shelling of the Holy Shrine in Mashhad in 1912, and occupying Iran during Persian Campaign in the First World War in 1914–1918, which later followed with Soviet occupation from 1941 to 1946 in World War II, were among the primary factors which led to distrust of Russia in Iranian collective memory to the present. The evidence for anti-Russian sentiments in Iranian collective memory was identified as contempt in historiographical and literary works, hatred in religious circles, and Russophobia and conspiracy theories among Iranian politicians. The author concluded that the image of Imperial Russia as an enemy in the collective memory of Iranians has been shaped by the transgenerational and lasting effects of the memory of historical events, making the feeling of victimization toward Russia an integral part of Iranian contemporary identity.

Keywords

War Intervention Distrust History Literature

References

  • Abrahamian, E. 2008. A History of Modern Iran. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
  • Adib Haravi Khorasani, M. H. 1952. Tarikh-e Enqelab-e Tus, ya, Peydayesh-e Mashrutiat-e Iran [History of the Tus Revolution, or, the Emergence of Iran’s Constitutionalism]. Publications of Hazrat Fatemeh Masoumeh Holy Threshold Library.
  • Adle, C., M. K. Palat, and A. Tabyshalieva. 2005. History of Civilizations of Central Asia: Towards the Contemporary Period: From the Mid-Nineteenth to the End of the Twentieth Century. UNESCO.
  • Aghazadeh, J. 2014. An analysis of the Role of Shia Clerics in the Second Round of Iran-Russia Wars. A Quarterly for Shi’a Studies: Theology, History, and Sociology of the Shi’a World 12, 47: 143–168.
  • Alam, A. 1991. The Shah and I: The Confidential Diary of Iran’s Royal Court, 1969-1977,trans. A. Alikhani. London and New York, I.B. Tauris.
  • Alexander, J. C., R. Eyerman, B. Giesen, N. J. Smelser, and P. Sztompka. 2004. Cultural Trauma and Collective Identity. Oakland, University of California Press.
  • Asisian, N. 2013. Russia & Iran: Strategic Alliance or Marriage of Convenience. Small Wars Journal, November 23. https://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/russia-iran-strategic-alliance-or-marriage-of- convenience.
  • Atabaki, T. 2016. Persia (Iran). In Handbook Global History of Work, ed. K. Hofmeester and M. van der Linden. Berlin, De Gruyter: 181–199.
  • Atkin, M. 1980. Russia and Iran, 1780–1828. Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press.
  • Avery, P. 1965. Modern Iran. London, Ernest Benn.
  • Baddeley, J. F. 1908. The Russian Conquest of the Caucasus. Longman, Green and Co.
  • Bahar, M. T. 2008. Divan-e Ash’ar-e Malek-ol-Sho’ara-ye Bahar [The Divan of Poems by Malek-ol-Shoara Bahar]. Tehran, Negah Publications.
  • Bashiri, A. 1988. Ketab-e Tarikhi: Gozarsh-haye Siasi-e Vezarat-e Kharejeh-e Rusiyeh-e Tezari darbareh-e Enghelab-e Mashruteh-e Iran [Historical Book: Political Reports of the Foreign Ministry of Tsarist Russia on the Iranian Constitutional Revolution]. Tehran, Noor Publication.
  • Bitis, A. 2006. Russia and the Eastern Question: Army, Government and Society, 1815-1833. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
  • Browne, E. G. 2008. Letters from Tabriz. Washington, D.C., Mage Publishers.
  • Citrin, J., and L. Stoker. 2018. Political Trust in a Cynical Age. Annual Review of Political Science 21, 1: 49–70.
  • Clark, J. D. 2006. Constitutionalists and Cossacks: The Constitutional Movement and Russian Intervention in Tabriz, 1907-11. Iranian Studies 39, 2: 199–225.
  • Cronin, S. 1997. The Army and Creation of the Pahlavi State in Iran, 1921-1926. London, I.B. Tauris.
  • Curzon, G. N. 2016. Persia and the Persian Question. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
  • Dastgerdi, H. V. 1962. Sharafnameh (Eskandarnameh) [Book of Alexander]. Tehran, Elmi Publishing.
  • Donzel, E. 1994. Islamic Desk Reference. Leiden, Brill.
  • Edalati, Z., and M. Imani. 2023. Imperial Wars and the Violence of Hunger: Remembering and Forgetting the Great Persian Famine 1917–1919. Third World Quarterly 45, 2: 350-366.
  • Algar, H. 1969. Religion and State in Iran 1785-1906: The role of the Ulama in the Qajar Period. Berkeley, University of California Press.
  • Erll, A. 2005. Literatur als Medium des kollektiven Gedächtnisses [Literature as a Medium of Collective Memory]. In Kollektives Gedächtnis und Erinnerungskulturen [Collective Memory and Cultures of Remembrance], ed. E. Einführung. Stuttgart, J.B. Metzler: 143–166.
  • Gallagher, N., E. Mohseni, and C. Ramsay. 2021. Iranian Public Opinion, At the Start of the Raisi Administration. Center for International and Security Studies at Maryland, September. https://cissm.umd.edu/research-impact/publications/iranian-public-opinion-start-raisi-administration.
  • Gallagher, N., E. Mohseni, and C. Ramsay. 2022. Iranian Public Opinion on the War in Ukraine and Nuclear Options: A Public Opinion Interim Report. Center for International and Security Studies at Maryland, August. https://cissm.umd.edu/research-impact/publications/iranian-public-opinion-war-ukraine-and-nuclear-options.
  • Gannon, S. 2001. (Re)presenting the Collective Girl: A Poetic Approach to a Methodological Dilemma. Qualitative Inquiry 7, 6: 787–800.
  • Groh, D. 1987. The Temptation of Conspiracy Theory. In Changing Conceptions of Conspiracy, ed. C. F. Graumann, and S. Moscovici. Berlin, Springer: 1–37.
  • Hambly, G. R. G. 1991. Iran during the Reigns of Fath Ali Shah and Muhammed Shah. In The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 7, From Nadir Shah to the Islamic Republic, ed. P. Avery, G. R. G. Hambly, and C. Melville. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press: 144-173.
  • Hambly, G. R. G. 1991. Iranian Relations with Russia and the Soviet Union, To 1921. In The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 7, From Nadir Shah to the Islamic Republic, ed. P. Avery, G. R. G. Hambly, and C. Melville. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press: 104-143.
  • Hamshahri Online. 2022. Safir-e Rusiyeh Dobareh be Mardom-e Iran Tohin Kard | Vezarat-e Kharejeh Dast be Kar Mishavad?! [The Russian Ambassador Insulted the Iranian People Again | Is the Ministry of Foreign Affairs Taking Action?!]. February 11. https://www.hamshahrionline.ir/news/656520.
  • Hedayat, R.-Q. K. 1984. Gozaresh-e Iran: Qajariyeh va Mashrutiat [Iran Report: Qajarism and Constitutionalism]. 2nd ed. Tehran, Noqreh.
  • Hidaji, M. 1989. Divan-e Hakim Hidaji [The Divan of Hakim Hidaji]. ed. A. Hashtroudi. Zanjan, Setareh Bookstore.
  • Hirschberger, G. 2018. Collective Trauma and the Social Construction of Meaning. Frontiers in Psychology 9, 1441: 1–14.
  • Hopkirk, P. 1991. The Great Game: On Secret Service in High Asia. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
  • Ibn Isfandiyar, B. al-D. M. ibn H. 1941. History of Tabarestan, ed. A. Eqbal. Tehran, Kalaleh Khavar.
  • Jabbarinasir, H. 2023. Sotrudnichestvo Irana i Rossii v Bor’be c Mezhdunarodnym Terrorizmom: Sostoyanie, Vozmozhnosti i Perspektivy [Cooperation Between Iran and Russia in the Fight Against International Terrorism: The Current State, Opportunities and Prospects]. World Economy and International Relations 67, 1: 90–100.
  • Jafari, K., A. Tavakkoli, and H. Safari. 2011. Barresi-ye Tarikh-e Ravabet-e Iran va Rusiye dar Markaz-e Pazhouhesh’ha [Review of the History of Iran-Russia Relations in the Research Center]. Research Center of the Islamic Parliament of Iran. Number 10620. January 24. https://rc.majlis.ir/fa/report/show/786203
  • Kasravi, A. 2004. Tarikh-e Mashrouteh-ye Iran [History of the Iranian Constitutional Revolution]. Tehran, Amir Kabir.
  • Kazemzadeh, F. 1991. Iranian Relations with Russia and the Soviet Union, To 1921. In The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 7, From Nadir Shah to the Islamic Republic, ed. P. Avery, G. R. G. Hambly, and C. Melville. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press: 328-330.
  • Khabar Online. 2024. Falahatpisheh: Rusiyeh dar har mowzu’i belafaseleh Iran ra mifrooshad / dar qaziyeh-e Zangezoor be Iran khianat shod [Falahatpisheh: Russia immediately sells out Iran in every matter / in the case of Zangezoor, Iran was betrayed]. November 5. https://www.khabaronline.ir/news/1963925.
  • Forouzanfar, B.-Z. 2010. Divan-e Khaqani-ye Shirvani [Divan of Khaqani Shirvani]. Tehran, Negah Publishing Institute.
  • Kavakebian, M. (@kavakebian_ir). 2022. “In the realm of diplomacy, one should not trust the friendship of any country’s rulers ...” Twitter, July 23. https://x.com/kavakebian_ir/status/1550502702089732097.
  • Kharitonov, D. V. 2024. Perspektivy Rossiysko-Iranskogo Energeticheskogo Sotrudnichestva [Prospects for Russian-Iranian Energy Cooperation]. Geoeconomics of Energetics 4: 77–100.
  • Khomeini, R. 1964. Sokhanaāni dar jam’e mardom (mokhalefat ba layeh-e kapitolasyon va e’lam-e aza-ye ‘omumi) [Speech to the public (Opposition to the Capitulation Bill and the Declaration of Public Mourning)]. In Sahifeh-ye Imam Khomeini [The Book of Imam Khomeini] 1: 415–424.
  • Koolaee, E., H. Mousavi, and A. Abedi. 2020. Fluctuations in Iran-Russia Relations During the Past Four Decades. Iran and the Caucasus 24, 2: 216–232.
  • Lenard, P. T. 2012. Trust, Democracy, and Multicultural Challenges. University Park, Pennsylvania State University Press.
  • Limbert, J. W. 2017. Love in Tiflis, Death in Tehran: The Tragedy of Alexander Sergeyevich Griboyedov. The Foreign Service Journal, October. https://afsa.org/love-tiflis-death-tehran-tragedy- alexander-sergeyevich-griboyedov.
  • Makki, H. 1944. Mokhtasari az Zendegani-e Siasi-e Soltan Ahmad Shah-e Qajar [A Brief Political Life of Sultan Ahmad Shah Qajar]. Tehran, Amir Kabir.
  • Mar’ashi, S. Z. al-D. 1984. History of Tabarestan, Royan, and Mazandarān, ed. B. Dorn. Tehran, Nashr-e Gostareh.
  • Matthee, R., and E. Andreeva. 2018. Russians in Iran: Diplomacy and Power in the Qajar Era and Beyond. London, I.B. Tauris.
  • Matthee, R. 2013. Rudeness and Revilement: Russian–Iranian Relations in the Mid-Seventeenth Century. Iranian Studies 46, 3: 333–357.
  • Mikaberidze, A. 2015. Historical Dictionary of Georgia. Lanham, Rowman & Littlefield.
  • Minorsky, V., C. E. Bosworth and S. S. Blair. 2007. Tabriz. In Historic Cities of the Islamic World, ed. C. E. Bosworth. Leiden, Brill: 486–498.
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The Image of Imperial Russia as an Enemy in the Iranians’ Collective Memory

Year 2025, , 1 - 18

Saeed Khavarinejad

https://doi.org/10.33458/uidergisi.1760083

Abstract

This research tried to uncover the historical factors that have instilled a deep-rooted distrust of Russia in the Iranians’ collective memory. The researcher employed a case study strategy to examine historical empirical data and analyzed the consequences of the conflicts between Persia/Iran and Imperial Russia through collective trauma theory. The research discovered that 1) the 9th–12th clashes and the Russo-Persian Wars in the 17th–19th centuries and their subsequent treaties of Gulistan, Turkmenchay, and later, Akhal, and 2) Imperial Russia’s interventions in Iran during Constitutional Revolution, including the shelling of the Iranian Parliament in 1911, threatening Iranian government by issuing two ultimatums in 1911, the occupation and atrocity against Iranians in Tabriz in 1909–1918, the shelling of the Holy Shrine in Mashhad in 1912, and occupying Iran during Persian Campaign in the First World War in 1914–1918, which later followed with Soviet occupation from 1941 to 1946 in World War II, were among the primary factors which led to distrust of Russia in Iranian collective memory to the present. The evidence for anti-Russian sentiments in Iranian collective memory was identified as contempt in historiographical and literary works, hatred in religious circles, and Russophobia and conspiracy theories among Iranian politicians. The author concluded that the image of Imperial Russia as an enemy in the collective memory of Iranians has been shaped by the transgenerational and lasting effects of the memory of historical events, making the feeling of victimization toward Russia an integral part of Iranian contemporary identity.

Keywords

War Intervention Distrust History Literature

References

  • Abrahamian, E. 2008. A History of Modern Iran. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
  • Adib Haravi Khorasani, M. H. 1952. Tarikh-e Enqelab-e Tus, ya, Peydayesh-e Mashrutiat-e Iran [History of the Tus Revolution, or, the Emergence of Iran’s Constitutionalism]. Publications of Hazrat Fatemeh Masoumeh Holy Threshold Library.
  • Adle, C., M. K. Palat, and A. Tabyshalieva. 2005. History of Civilizations of Central Asia: Towards the Contemporary Period: From the Mid-Nineteenth to the End of the Twentieth Century. UNESCO.
  • Aghazadeh, J. 2014. An analysis of the Role of Shia Clerics in the Second Round of Iran-Russia Wars. A Quarterly for Shi’a Studies: Theology, History, and Sociology of the Shi’a World 12, 47: 143–168.
  • Alam, A. 1991. The Shah and I: The Confidential Diary of Iran’s Royal Court, 1969-1977,trans. A. Alikhani. London and New York, I.B. Tauris.
  • Alexander, J. C., R. Eyerman, B. Giesen, N. J. Smelser, and P. Sztompka. 2004. Cultural Trauma and Collective Identity. Oakland, University of California Press.
  • Asisian, N. 2013. Russia & Iran: Strategic Alliance or Marriage of Convenience. Small Wars Journal, November 23. https://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/russia-iran-strategic-alliance-or-marriage-of- convenience.
  • Atabaki, T. 2016. Persia (Iran). In Handbook Global History of Work, ed. K. Hofmeester and M. van der Linden. Berlin, De Gruyter: 181–199.
  • Atkin, M. 1980. Russia and Iran, 1780–1828. Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press.
  • Avery, P. 1965. Modern Iran. London, Ernest Benn.
  • Baddeley, J. F. 1908. The Russian Conquest of the Caucasus. Longman, Green and Co.
  • Bahar, M. T. 2008. Divan-e Ash’ar-e Malek-ol-Sho’ara-ye Bahar [The Divan of Poems by Malek-ol-Shoara Bahar]. Tehran, Negah Publications.
  • Bashiri, A. 1988. Ketab-e Tarikhi: Gozarsh-haye Siasi-e Vezarat-e Kharejeh-e Rusiyeh-e Tezari darbareh-e Enghelab-e Mashruteh-e Iran [Historical Book: Political Reports of the Foreign Ministry of Tsarist Russia on the Iranian Constitutional Revolution]. Tehran, Noor Publication.
  • Bitis, A. 2006. Russia and the Eastern Question: Army, Government and Society, 1815-1833. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
  • Browne, E. G. 2008. Letters from Tabriz. Washington, D.C., Mage Publishers.
  • Citrin, J., and L. Stoker. 2018. Political Trust in a Cynical Age. Annual Review of Political Science 21, 1: 49–70.
  • Clark, J. D. 2006. Constitutionalists and Cossacks: The Constitutional Movement and Russian Intervention in Tabriz, 1907-11. Iranian Studies 39, 2: 199–225.
  • Cronin, S. 1997. The Army and Creation of the Pahlavi State in Iran, 1921-1926. London, I.B. Tauris.
  • Curzon, G. N. 2016. Persia and the Persian Question. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
  • Dastgerdi, H. V. 1962. Sharafnameh (Eskandarnameh) [Book of Alexander]. Tehran, Elmi Publishing.
  • Donzel, E. 1994. Islamic Desk Reference. Leiden, Brill.
  • Edalati, Z., and M. Imani. 2023. Imperial Wars and the Violence of Hunger: Remembering and Forgetting the Great Persian Famine 1917–1919. Third World Quarterly 45, 2: 350-366.
  • Algar, H. 1969. Religion and State in Iran 1785-1906: The role of the Ulama in the Qajar Period. Berkeley, University of California Press.
  • Erll, A. 2005. Literatur als Medium des kollektiven Gedächtnisses [Literature as a Medium of Collective Memory]. In Kollektives Gedächtnis und Erinnerungskulturen [Collective Memory and Cultures of Remembrance], ed. E. Einführung. Stuttgart, J.B. Metzler: 143–166.
  • Gallagher, N., E. Mohseni, and C. Ramsay. 2021. Iranian Public Opinion, At the Start of the Raisi Administration. Center for International and Security Studies at Maryland, September. https://cissm.umd.edu/research-impact/publications/iranian-public-opinion-start-raisi-administration.
  • Gallagher, N., E. Mohseni, and C. Ramsay. 2022. Iranian Public Opinion on the War in Ukraine and Nuclear Options: A Public Opinion Interim Report. Center for International and Security Studies at Maryland, August. https://cissm.umd.edu/research-impact/publications/iranian-public-opinion-war-ukraine-and-nuclear-options.
  • Gannon, S. 2001. (Re)presenting the Collective Girl: A Poetic Approach to a Methodological Dilemma. Qualitative Inquiry 7, 6: 787–800.
  • Groh, D. 1987. The Temptation of Conspiracy Theory. In Changing Conceptions of Conspiracy, ed. C. F. Graumann, and S. Moscovici. Berlin, Springer: 1–37.
  • Hambly, G. R. G. 1991. Iran during the Reigns of Fath Ali Shah and Muhammed Shah. In The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 7, From Nadir Shah to the Islamic Republic, ed. P. Avery, G. R. G. Hambly, and C. Melville. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press: 144-173.
  • Hambly, G. R. G. 1991. Iranian Relations with Russia and the Soviet Union, To 1921. In The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 7, From Nadir Shah to the Islamic Republic, ed. P. Avery, G. R. G. Hambly, and C. Melville. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press: 104-143.
  • Hamshahri Online. 2022. Safir-e Rusiyeh Dobareh be Mardom-e Iran Tohin Kard | Vezarat-e Kharejeh Dast be Kar Mishavad?! [The Russian Ambassador Insulted the Iranian People Again | Is the Ministry of Foreign Affairs Taking Action?!]. February 11. https://www.hamshahrionline.ir/news/656520.
  • Hedayat, R.-Q. K. 1984. Gozaresh-e Iran: Qajariyeh va Mashrutiat [Iran Report: Qajarism and Constitutionalism]. 2nd ed. Tehran, Noqreh.
  • Hidaji, M. 1989. Divan-e Hakim Hidaji [The Divan of Hakim Hidaji]. ed. A. Hashtroudi. Zanjan, Setareh Bookstore.
  • Hirschberger, G. 2018. Collective Trauma and the Social Construction of Meaning. Frontiers in Psychology 9, 1441: 1–14.
  • Hopkirk, P. 1991. The Great Game: On Secret Service in High Asia. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
  • Ibn Isfandiyar, B. al-D. M. ibn H. 1941. History of Tabarestan, ed. A. Eqbal. Tehran, Kalaleh Khavar.
  • Jabbarinasir, H. 2023. Sotrudnichestvo Irana i Rossii v Bor’be c Mezhdunarodnym Terrorizmom: Sostoyanie, Vozmozhnosti i Perspektivy [Cooperation Between Iran and Russia in the Fight Against International Terrorism: The Current State, Opportunities and Prospects]. World Economy and International Relations 67, 1: 90–100.
  • Jafari, K., A. Tavakkoli, and H. Safari. 2011. Barresi-ye Tarikh-e Ravabet-e Iran va Rusiye dar Markaz-e Pazhouhesh’ha [Review of the History of Iran-Russia Relations in the Research Center]. Research Center of the Islamic Parliament of Iran. Number 10620. January 24. https://rc.majlis.ir/fa/report/show/786203
  • Kasravi, A. 2004. Tarikh-e Mashrouteh-ye Iran [History of the Iranian Constitutional Revolution]. Tehran, Amir Kabir.
  • Kazemzadeh, F. 1991. Iranian Relations with Russia and the Soviet Union, To 1921. In The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 7, From Nadir Shah to the Islamic Republic, ed. P. Avery, G. R. G. Hambly, and C. Melville. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press: 328-330.
  • Khabar Online. 2024. Falahatpisheh: Rusiyeh dar har mowzu’i belafaseleh Iran ra mifrooshad / dar qaziyeh-e Zangezoor be Iran khianat shod [Falahatpisheh: Russia immediately sells out Iran in every matter / in the case of Zangezoor, Iran was betrayed]. November 5. https://www.khabaronline.ir/news/1963925.
  • Forouzanfar, B.-Z. 2010. Divan-e Khaqani-ye Shirvani [Divan of Khaqani Shirvani]. Tehran, Negah Publishing Institute.
  • Kavakebian, M. (@kavakebian_ir). 2022. “In the realm of diplomacy, one should not trust the friendship of any country’s rulers ...” Twitter, July 23. https://x.com/kavakebian_ir/status/1550502702089732097.
  • Kharitonov, D. V. 2024. Perspektivy Rossiysko-Iranskogo Energeticheskogo Sotrudnichestva [Prospects for Russian-Iranian Energy Cooperation]. Geoeconomics of Energetics 4: 77–100.
  • Khomeini, R. 1964. Sokhanaāni dar jam’e mardom (mokhalefat ba layeh-e kapitolasyon va e’lam-e aza-ye ‘omumi) [Speech to the public (Opposition to the Capitulation Bill and the Declaration of Public Mourning)]. In Sahifeh-ye Imam Khomeini [The Book of Imam Khomeini] 1: 415–424.
  • Koolaee, E., H. Mousavi, and A. Abedi. 2020. Fluctuations in Iran-Russia Relations During the Past Four Decades. Iran and the Caucasus 24, 2: 216–232.
  • Lenard, P. T. 2012. Trust, Democracy, and Multicultural Challenges. University Park, Pennsylvania State University Press.
  • Limbert, J. W. 2017. Love in Tiflis, Death in Tehran: The Tragedy of Alexander Sergeyevich Griboyedov. The Foreign Service Journal, October. https://afsa.org/love-tiflis-death-tehran-tragedy- alexander-sergeyevich-griboyedov.
  • Makki, H. 1944. Mokhtasari az Zendegani-e Siasi-e Soltan Ahmad Shah-e Qajar [A Brief Political Life of Sultan Ahmad Shah Qajar]. Tehran, Amir Kabir.
  • Mar’ashi, S. Z. al-D. 1984. History of Tabarestan, Royan, and Mazandarān, ed. B. Dorn. Tehran, Nashr-e Gostareh.
  • Matthee, R., and E. Andreeva. 2018. Russians in Iran: Diplomacy and Power in the Qajar Era and Beyond. London, I.B. Tauris.
  • Matthee, R. 2013. Rudeness and Revilement: Russian–Iranian Relations in the Mid-Seventeenth Century. Iranian Studies 46, 3: 333–357.
  • Mikaberidze, A. 2015. Historical Dictionary of Georgia. Lanham, Rowman & Littlefield.
  • Minorsky, V., C. E. Bosworth and S. S. Blair. 2007. Tabriz. In Historic Cities of the Islamic World, ed. C. E. Bosworth. Leiden, Brill: 486–498.
  • Muzaffar Maqam, A. 2008. Documents of the Unsuccessful Return of Mohammad Ali Shah to Power. Journal of the History of Islam 6, 2: 651–74.
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There are 75 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language English
Subjects Regional Studies, Middle East Studies
Journal Section Research Article
Authors

Saeed Khavarinejad This is me 0009-0009-7941-5551

Early Pub Date August 22, 2025
Publication Date October 1, 2025
Submission Date November 28, 2024
Acceptance Date August 7, 2025
Published in Issue Year 2025

Cite

APA Khavarinejad, S. (2025). The Image of Imperial Russia as an Enemy in the Iranians’ Collective Memory. Uluslararası İlişkiler Dergisi1-18. https://doi.org/10.33458/uidergisi.1760083
AMA Khavarinejad S. The Image of Imperial Russia as an Enemy in the Iranians’ Collective Memory. Uluslararası İlişkiler Dergisi. Published online August 1, 2025:1-18. doi:10.33458/uidergisi.1760083
Chicago Khavarinejad, Saeed. “The Image of Imperial Russia As an Enemy in the Iranians’ Collective Memory”. Uluslararası İlişkiler Dergisi, August (August 2025), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.33458/uidergisi.1760083.
EndNote Khavarinejad S (August 1, 2025) The Image of Imperial Russia as an Enemy in the Iranians’ Collective Memory. Uluslararası İlişkiler Dergisi 1–18.
IEEE S. Khavarinejad, “The Image of Imperial Russia as an Enemy in the Iranians’ Collective Memory”, Uluslararası İlişkiler Dergisi, pp. 1–18, August2025, doi: 10.33458/uidergisi.1760083.
ISNAD Khavarinejad, Saeed. “The Image of Imperial Russia As an Enemy in the Iranians’ Collective Memory”. Uluslararası İlişkiler Dergisi. August2025. 1-18. https://doi.org/10.33458/uidergisi.1760083.
JAMA Khavarinejad S. The Image of Imperial Russia as an Enemy in the Iranians’ Collective Memory. Uluslararası İlişkiler Dergisi. 2025;:1–18.
MLA Khavarinejad, Saeed. “The Image of Imperial Russia As an Enemy in the Iranians’ Collective Memory”. Uluslararası İlişkiler Dergisi, 2025, pp. 1-18, doi:10.33458/uidergisi.1760083.
Vancouver Khavarinejad S. The Image of Imperial Russia as an Enemy in the Iranians’ Collective Memory. Uluslararası İlişkiler Dergisi. 2025:1-18.