Uluslararasılaşan Terörizm ve Filipinler’deki Etkileri

Year 2024, Volume: 8 Issue: 1, 25 - 38, 30.06.2024

Harun Talha Ayanoğlu

Abstract

Uzun bir süre yerel bir tehdit olarak kabul edilen terörizm, 11 Eylül Saldırılarıyla birlikte paradigmatik bir değişim yaşadı ve küresel bir güvenlik tehdidine dönüştü. 11 Eylül saldırılarının arkasındaki El Kaide yalnızca yeni taktikler uygulamakla kalmayıp, stratejik ve hiyerarşik olarak daha esnek bir terörizm formuna da öncülük etti. Bu nedenle, 20 yıl süren teröre karşı küresel taktiksel zaferlerden başka bir sonuç getirmedi. El Kaide ve IŞİD gibi grupların Irak ve Suriye’deki yenilgilerine rağmen terör tehdidi dünya çapında çeşitli şekillerde varlığını devam ettirdi. Yabancı savaşçıların Suriye ve Irak'tan geri dönüşü, yalnızca Batı ülkelerini değil aynı zamanda Güneydoğu Asya'yı da kapsayacak şekilde güvenlik sorunlarını derinleştirdi. Bu makale terörizmin uluslararasılaşmasını kavramsallaştırmayı ve analiz etmeyi amaçlamaktadır. Bu doğrultuda bu makale, ulusal sınırları aşan dini motivasyonlu uluslararası terörizmin metodolojisini vurgulayarak bu olgunun evrimini araştırmaktadır. Bunun etkileri, ulusal kimlik inşasında
başarısız olan, uzun yıllardır İslamcı silahlı ayaklanmalarla mücadele eden ve ülke üzerinde etkin devlet kontrolünü sağlayamayan Filipinler’de, Marawi Savaşı özelinde incelenecektir.

Keywords

Uluslararası Terörizm, Filipinler, Cihat, Güneydoğu Asya

Internationalization of Terrorism and its Implications in the Philippines

Abstract

Terrorism, once a localized threat, experienced a paradigmatic shift with the 9/11 Attacks, evolving into a global security menace. Al Qaeda, the orchestrator of 9/11, not only introduced unconventional tactics but also pioneered a strategically and hierarchically flexible form of terrorism. The global war on terror lasting two decades assured nothing but tactical victories. Despite the fall of prominent terrorist groups like Al Qaeda and ISIS in Syria and Iraq, the threat endures in diverse forms globally. The return of foreign fighters from Syria and Iraq further exacerbated the security challenges with implications extending not only to Western countries but also to Southeast Asia. This article aims to conceptualize and analyze the internationalization of terrorism. It explores the evolution of this phenomenon, emphasizing the methodology of religiously motivated international terrorism that transcends national borders. The implications are scrutinized within the context of the Battle of Marawi in the Philippines, a nation grappling with identity-building challenges, longstanding Islamist insurgency, and state control issues.

Keywords

International Terrorism, the Philippines, Jihad, Southeast Asia

References

• Abuza, Z. (2003). Militant Islam in Southeast Asia: Crucible of terror. Lynne Rienner Publishers.
• Acharya, A. (2015). Whither Southeast Asia terrorism? Imperial College Press.
• al-Maududi, A. (1979). Four Basic Terms. Islamic Publications.
• al-Maududi, A. (1980). Jihad in Islam. Holy Koran Publishing House.
• Alindogan, J. (2017). Philippines: Marawi suffers humanitarian crisis during siege. Aljazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/video/news/2017/06/philippines-marawi-suffers- humanitarian-crisis-siege-170624104038086.html
• Aljazeera. (2017). Duterte: Marawi ‘liberated’ from ISIL-linked fighters. Aljazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/10/duterte-marawi-liberated-isil-linked- fighters-171017071213300.html
• Al-Suri, A. M. (2007). Boevaia ideologia. Politika i ee granitsy. http://jamaatshariat.com/ru/content/view/405/34
• Al-Suri, A. M. (2014). Küresel İslami Direniş Çağrısı. Anlati Yayinlari.
• Banlaoi, R. (2009). Counter Terrorism Measures in Southeast Asia: How Effective are They? De La Salle Unversity Yuchengco Center.
• Banlaoi, R. (2010). Philipine Security in the Age of Terror: National, Regional, and Global Challenges in the Post-911 World. Taylor & Francis Group.
• Bates, R. H. (2010). Prosperity and violence: The political economy of development (2. ed). Norton.
• Betteridge-Moes, M. (2017). What happened in Marawi? Aljazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2017/10/29/what-happened-in-marawi/
• bin Laden, O. (1996). Declaration of War Against Americans Occupying the Land of the Two Holy Places. https://www.terrorismfiles.org/individuals/declaration_of_jihad1.html
• Byman, D. (2015). Al Qaeda, the Islamic State, and the global jihadist movement: What everyone needs to know. Oxford University Press.
• Capone, F., Paulussen, C., & Mignot-Mahdavi, R. (Eds.). (2023). Returning Foreign Fighters: Responses, Legal Challenges and Ways Forward. T.M.C. Asser Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-571-3
• Chalk, P., Angel Rabasa, William Rosenau, & Leanne Piggott. (2009). The Evolving Terrorist Threat to Southeast Asia; A Net Assessment. RAND Corporation.
• Chao, S. (2017). Taking Back Marawi. Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/program/101- east/2017/10/26/taking-back-marawi
• Cockburn, P. (2015). The rise of Islamic state: ISIS and the new Sunni revolution. Verso.
• Coffey, L. (2015). Arab Spring was really a spring for al-Qaeda. https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2015/5/17/arab-spring-was-really-a-spring-for- al-qaeda
• Collier, K. (2006). Terrorism: Evolving Regional Alliances and State Failure in Mindanao. Southeast Asian Affairs, 26–38.
• Cook, M. (2017). Marawi City: Symptoms and Solutions. Lowy Institute. https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/marawi-city-symptoms-solutions
• Crone, M., & Harrow, M. (2011). Homegrown Terrorism in the West. Terrorism and Political Violence, 23(4), 521–536. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2011.571556
• Fishman, B. (2008). Using the Mistakes of al Qaeda’s Franchises to Undermine Its Strategies. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 618(1), 46–54. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716208316650
• Fukuyama, F. (2004). State-Building: Governance and World Order in the Twenty-First Century. Profile Books.
• Geertz, C. (1968). Islam Observed: Religious Development in Morocco and Indonesia. Yale University Press.
• Gershman, J. (2002). Is Southeast Asia the Second Front? Foreign Affairs, 81(4), 60. https://doi.org/10.2307/20033240
• Gotinga, J. (2017). Stalled peace deals crucial in Philippines ISIL fight. Aljazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/10/stalled-peace-deal-crucial-philippines-isil- fight-171024143318897.html
• GTD. (2020). The Philippines. Global Terrorism Database. https://www.start.umd.edu/gtd/search/Results.aspx?search=philippines&sa.x=0&sa.y=0
• Harris-Hogan, S., & Zammit, A. (2014). Mantiqi IV: Al-Qaeda’s Failed Co-Optation of a Jemaah Islamiyah Support Network. Democracy and Security, 10(4), 315–334. https://doi.org/10.1080/17419166.2014.964860
• Hart, M. (2018). Mindanao’s Insurgencies Take an Explosive Turn. The Diplomat. https://thediplomat.com/2018/06/mindanaos-insurgencies-take-an-explosive-turn/
• Holbrook, D. (2012). Al-Qaeda’s Response to the Arab Spring. Perspectives on Terrorism, 6(6), 4– 21.
• Hutchcroft, P. D. (1998). Booty capitalism: The politics of banking in the Philippines. Cornell University Press.
• ICG. (2003). Jemaah Islamiyah in Southeast Asia: Damaged but Still Dangerous(p. 50). International
• Crisis Group. https://icg-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/63-jemaah-islamiyah-in-south-east- asia-damaged-but-still-dangerous.pdf
• Jenkins, B. M. (1985). International terrorism: The other world war; a project Air Force report prep. for the United States Air Force. Rand.
• Jones, S. G. (2012). Think Again: Al Qaeda. Foreign Policy, May/June.
• Keohane, R. O., & Nye, J. S. (2000). Globalization: What’s New? What’s Not? (And So What?). Foreign Policy, 118, 104. https://doi.org/10.2307/1149673
• Kimball, J. (2023). Costs of the 20-year war on terror: $8 trillion and 900,000 deaths. Brown. https://www.brown.edu/news/2021-09-01/costsofwar
• Liljas, P. (2016). ISIS Is Making Inroads in the Southern Philippines and the Implications for Asia Are
• Alarming. Time. http://time.com/4293395/isis-zamboanga-mindanao-moro-islamist- terrorist-asia-philippines-abu-sayyaf/
• Majul, C. A. (1999). Muslims in the Philippines (1999 ed). Univ. of the Philippines Pr.
• McKenna, T. M. (1998). Muslim rulers and rebels: Everyday politics and armed separatism in the southern Philippines. University of California Press.
• McKirdy, E., & Watson, I. (2017). Bloodied and broken: Rising toll of Philippines’ war with ISIS. CNN World. https://edition.cnn.com/2017/06/25/asia/philippines-marawi-isis/index.html
• Mearsheimer, J. J. (2010). Structural Realism. In International Relations Theories: Discipline and Diversity (pp. 77–94). Oxford University Press.
• Mehra, T., Herbach, M., Margolin, D., & Doctor, A. C. (2023). Trends in the Return and Prosecution of ISIS Foreign Terrorist Fighters in the United States (p. 26). The International Centre for Counter-Terrorism. https://www.icct.nl/sites/default/files/2023- 08/NCITE%20final%20with%20alt%20cover.pdf
• Milligan, J. A. (2001). Religious Identity, Political Autonomy and National Integrity: Implications for educational policy from MuslimChristian conflict in the Southern Philippines. Islam and Christian–Muslim Relations, 12(4), 435–448. https://doi.org/10.1080/0959641020089916
• Mishra, R. (2023). What’s Behind the Growing Number of Attacks in Southern Thailand? The Diplomat. https://thediplomat.com/2023/05/whats-behind-the-growing-number-of-attacks-in-southern-thailand/
• Munnich, S. (2014). Al Qaeda 3.0 – The Evolving Threat. NATO Association of Canada. http://natoassociation.ca/al-qaeda-3-0-the-evolving-threat/
• Nelson, R. (2011). A threat transformed: Al Qaeda and associated movements in 2011. Center for Strategic and International Studies.
• Phillips, M. (2011). Osama Bin Laden Dead. The White House. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2011/05/02/osama-bin-laden-dead
• Quimpo, N. G. (2016). Mindanao: Nationalism, Jihadism and Frustrated Peace. Journal of Asian Security and International Affairs, 3(1), 64–89. https://doi.org/10.1177/2347797015626046
• Ramakrishna, K., & Seng Tan, S. (2003). After Bali: The Threat of Terrorism in Southeast Asia. CO- PUBLISHED BY WORLD SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHING CO. AND INSTITUTE OF DEFENCE AND STRATEGIC STUDIES. https://doi.org/10.1142/5438
• Rapoport, D. C. (2002). The Four Waves of Rebel Terror and September 11. Anthropoetics: The Journal of Generative Anthropology, 8(1). https://anthropoetics.ucla.edu/ap0801/terror/
• Riedel, B. (2013). The Coming of Al Qaeda 3.0. Brookings. https://www.brookings.edu/articles/the-coming-of-al-qaeda-3-0/
• Rivera, T. C. (1994). Landlords and capitalists: Class, family, and state in Philippine manufacturing. Univ. of the Philippines Press.
• Scheuer, M. (2003). Through our enemies’ eyes: Osama bin Laden, radical Islam, and the future of America (1st pbk. ed). Brassey’s.
• Schreer, B., & Tan, A. T. H. (Eds.). (2019). The chronic threat of insurgent groups in the Philippines. n Terrorism and insurgency in Asia: A contemporary examination of terrorist and separatist movements. Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.
• Taylor, A. (2017). A Victory Against ISIS in the Philippines Leaves a City Destroyed. The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2017/10/a-victory-against-isis-in-the-philippines- leaves-a-city-destroyed/543963/
• Turner, M., May, R. J., & Turner, L. R. (1992). Mindanao: Land of Unfulfilled Promise. New Day Publishers. UNHCR. (2023). Mindanao Displacement Bulletin (p. 2). UNHCR. https://www.protectionclusterphilippines.org/wp- content/uploads/2023/12/Mindanao-Displacement-Bulletin-Sept-2023.pdf
• UNOCHA. (2018). Philippines Humanitarian Bulletin Issue 1 | February 2018. OCHA. https://reliefweb.int/report/philippines/philippines-humanitarian-bulletin-issue-1- february-2018
• Vaughn, B., Chanlett-Avery, E., & Dolven, B. (2009). Terrorism in Southeast Asia. Congressional Research Service. https://fas.org/sgp/crs/terror/RL34194.pdf
• Watts, C. (2013). Three Versions of Al Qaeda: A Primer. Foreign Policy Research Institute. https://www.fpri.org/docs/watts_-_HI_-_al_Qaeda.pdf
• White, L. T. (2009). Political booms: Local money and power in Taiwan, East China, Thailand, and the Philippines. World Scientific.
• Zimmerman, K. (2021). Al-Qaeda After the Arab Spring: A Decade of Expansion, Losses, and Evolution. Hudson. https://www.hudson.org/national-security-defense/al-qaeda-after- the-arab-spring-a-decade-of-expansion-losses-and-evolution