Physiological Performance Characteristics of Male and Female Division I Cross-Country Runners

Abstract

Aim: This study was aimed to understand the physiological performance characteristics of cross- country runners and differences in performance variables between sexes.

Methods: Twelve male and ten female cross-country runners performed a Maximal Oxygen Consumption test, Dual-Energy X-Ray Absorptiometry and Ultrasound measurements of their lower limb.

Results: Males had significantly higher value levels of VO2Peak (73.3±7.5 vs 62.3±4.7 ml/kg/min), Ventilation (159.0±16.3 vs 120.8±12.5 L/min), Lactate Threshold (318±13.8 vs 259±7.8 m/sec), and Lean Mass (55.5±7.32 vs 42.34±3.81 kg). Females had higher values for Echo Intensity, Body Fat Percentage (7.42±2.60 vs 14.71±2.77 %) and Body Fat (4.76±1.94 vs 7.71±1.70 kg). All other variables were similar between male and female cross-country runners.

Conclusion: The difference in physiological characteristics between males and females may help explain why males have more favorable performance outcomes.

Keywords

• Cross Sectional Area
• Muscle Quality
• VO2 Max

References

1. Aagaard, Per, Andersen, Jesper L, Dyhre‐Poulsen, Poul, Leffers, Anne‐Mette, Wagner, Aase, Magnusson, S Peter, . . . Simonsen, Erik B. (2001). A mechanism for increased contractile strength of human pennate muscle in response to strength training: changes in muscle architecture. The Journal of physiology, 534(2), 613-623.
2. Abe, Takashi, Kumagai, Kenya, & Brechue, William F. (2000). Fascicle length of leg muscles is greater in sprinters than distance runners. Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 32(6), 1125-1129.
3. Alegre, Luis M, Jiménez, Fernando, Gonzalo-Orden, José Manuel, Martín-Acero, Rafael, & Aguado, Xavier. (2006). Effects of dynamic resistance training on fascicle lengthand isometric strength. Journal of sports sciences, 24(05), 501-508.
4. Barnes, Kyle R, & Kilding, Andrew E. (2015). Running economy: measurement, norms, and determining factors. Sports Medicine-Open, 1(1), 1-15.
5. Barnes, Kyle R, Mcguigan, Michael R, & Kilding, Andrew E. (2014). Lower-body determinants of running economy in male and female distance runners. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 28(5), 1289-1297.
6. Blazevich, Anthony J, Gill, Nicholas D, Bronks, Roger, & Newton, Robert U. (2003). Training-specific muscle architecture adaptation after 5-wk training in athletes. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 35(12), 2013-2022.
7. Cadore, Eduardo Lusa, Izquierdo, Mikel, Conceição, Matheus, Radaelli, Régis, Pinto, Ronei Silveira, Baroni, Bruno Manfredini, . . . Cunha, Giovani. (2012). Echo intensity is associated with skeletal muscle power and cardiovascular performance in elderly men. Exp Geriatr 47(6), 473-478.
8. Cadore, EL, González‐Izal, M, Pallarés, JG, Rodriguez‐Falces, J, Häkkinen, K, Kraemer, WJ, . . . Izquierdo, M. (2014). Muscle conduction velocity, strength, neural activity, and morphological changes after eccentric and concentric training. Scandinavian journal of medicine & science in sports, 24(5), e343-e352.

9. Fleck, Steven J. (1983). Body composition of elite American athletes. The American journal of sports medicine, 11(6), 398-403.
10. Hill, John C, & Millan, Inigo San. (2014). Validation of musculoskeletal ultrasound to assess and quantify muscle glycogen content. A novel approach. Phys Sportsmed, 42(3), 45-52.
11. Hirsch, Katie R, Smith-Ryan, Abbie E, Trexler, Eric T, & Roelofs, Erica J. (2016). Body composition and muscle characteristics of division I track and field athletes. Journal of strength and conditioning research/National Strength & Conditioning Association, 30(5), 1231.
12. Horowitz, JE, Sidossis, LS, & Coyle, EF. (1994). High Efficiency of Type I Muscle Fibers Improves. Int. J. Sports Med, 15, 152-157.
13. Lundby, Carsten, Montero, David, Gehrig, Saskia, Andersson Hall, U, Kaiser, Pascal, Boushel, Robert, . . . Flück, Martin. (2017). Physiological, biochemical, anthropometric, and biomechanical influences on exercise economy in humans. Scandinavian journal of medicine & science in sports, 27(12), 1627-1637.
14. Maciejczyk, Marcin, Więcek, Magdalena, Szymura, Jadwiga, Szyguła, Zbigniew, Wiecha, Szczepan, & Cempla, Jerzy. (2014). The influence of increased body fat or lean body mass on aerobic performance. PloS one, 9(4), e95797.
15. Mayans, David, Cartwright, Michael S, & Walker, Francis O. (2012). Neuromuscular ultrasonography: quantifying muscle and nerve measurements. Phys Med Rehabil Clin, 23(1), 133-148.
16. Mogensen, Martin, Bagger, Malene, Pedersen, Preben K, Fernström, Maria, & Sahlin, Kent. (2006). Cycling efficiency in humans is related to low UCP3 content and to type I fibres but not to mitochondrial efficiency. The Journal of physiology, 571(3), 669-681.
17. Mota, Jacob A, & Stock, Matt S. (2017). Rectus femoris echo intensity correlates with muscle strength, but not endurance, in younger and older men. Ultrasound in medicine & biology, 43(8), 1651-1657.
18. Murach, Kevin, Greever, Cory, & Luden, Nicholas D. (2015). Skeletal muscle architectural adaptations to marathon run training. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism, 40(1), 99-102.
19. Nattiv, Aurelia. (2000). Stress fractures and bone health in track and field athletes. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 3(3), 268-279.
20. Pillen, Sigrid, Tak, Ramon O, Zwarts, Machiel J, Lammens, Martin MY, Verrijp, Kiek N, Arts, Ilse MP, . . . Verrips, Aad. (2009). Skeletal muscle ultrasound: correlation between fibrous tissue and echo intensity. Ultrasound Med Biol, 35(3), 443-446.
21. Rabadán, Manuel, Díaz, Víctor, Calderón, Francisco J, Benito, Pedro J, Peinado, Ana B, & Maffulli, Nicola. (2011). Physiological determinants of speciality of elite middle-and long-distance runners. Journal of sports sciences, 29(9), 975-982.
22. Reimers, Karim, Reimers, Carl D, Wagner, St, Paetzke, I, & Pongratz, DE. (1993). Skeletal muscle sonography: a correlative study of echogenicity and morphology. J Ultrasound Med, 12(2), 73-77.
23. Roelofs, Erica J, Smith-Ryan, Abbie E, Melvin, Malia N, Wingfield, Hailee L, Trexler, Eric T, & Walker, Nina. (2015). Muscle size, quality, and body composition: characteristics of division I cross-country runners. Journal of strength and conditioning research/National Strength & Conditioning Association, 29(2), 290.
24. Salinero, Juan J, Soriano, María L, Lara, Beatriz, Gallo-Salazar, César, Areces, Francisco, Ruiz-Vicente, Diana, . . . Del Coso, Juan. (2016). Predicting race time in male amateur marathon runners. The Journal of sports medicine and physical fitness, 57(9), 1169-1177.
25. Sarvazyan, Armen, Tatarinov, Alexey, & Sarvazyan, Noune. (2005). Ultrasonic assessment of tissue hydration status. Ultrasonics, 43(8), 661-671.
26. Saunders, Philo U, Pyne, David B, Telford, Richard D, & Hawley, John A. (2004). Factors affecting running economy in trained distance runners. Sports medicine, 34(7), 465-485.
27. Stock, Matt S, Whitson, Morgan, Burton, Adam M, Dawson, Nicole T, Sobolewski, Eric J, & Thompson, Brennan J. (2018). Echo intensity versus muscle function correlations in older adults are influenced by subcutaneous fat thickness. Ultrasound in medicine & biology, 44(8), 1597-1605.
28. Timmins, Ryan G, Shield, Anthony J, Williams, Morgan D, Lorenzen, Christian, & Opar, David A. (2016). Architectural adaptations of muscle to training and injury: a narrative review outlining the contributions by fascicle length, pennation angle and muscle thickness. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 50(23), 1467-1472.
29. Tweedell, Andrew J, Ryan, Eric D, Scharville, Michael J, Rosenberg, Joseph G, Sobolewski, Eric J, & Kleinberg, Craig R. (2016). The influence of ultrasound measurement techniques on the age-related differences in Achilles tendon size. Experimental Gerontology, 76, 68-71.
30. Young, Hui‐Ju, Jenkins, Nathan T, Zhao, Qun, & Mccully, Kevin K. (2015). Measurement of intramuscular fat by muscle echo intensity. Muscle Nerve, 52(6), 963-971.