From Individual to Whole Lichens as Examples of Symbiosis

Abstract

Taxonomically, lichens are classified as a distinct group under the Kingdom Fungi. They have been subject to materia medica books since the ancient times, drawing attention for their medicinal properties. Studies on the biology and history of lichens in Türkiye have now reached a significant level. Therefore, it is epistemologically plausible to consider lichens in philosophy and from a philosophical perspective. The dual nature of lichens known as symbiotic organisms leads to the emergence of certain properties that are not observable when individual partners live separately. The present study explores whether lichens are indivisible individuals, discussing the lichen thallus as a relatively balanced system and even a miniature ‘ecosystem’. Consequently, this paper proposes that emergence, as a concept, can be considered a methodological apparatus in both defining and explaining biological facts and phenomena. Building on biological knowledge, it is suggested that philosophy, particularly biophilosophy and ethics, can consider lichens as model organisms. Through this perspective, principles for coexistence of both individuals, communities, and societies can be established.

Keywords

• biophilosophy
• emergentism
• metabiology
• philosophy of biology
• symbiosis

Bir Aradalık Örneği Olarak Bireyden Bütüne Likenler

Abstract

Taksonomik olarak likenler, Mantarlar Âlemi altında ayrı bir grup olarak ele alınırlar. Antik Çağ’dan itibaren materia medica kitaplarına da konu olmuş, tedavi edici özellikleri sebebiyle dikkat çekmişlerdir. Türkiye’de likenlerin biyolojisiyle ve tarihiyle ilgili çalışmalar artık belirli bir düzeye erişmiştir. Bu yüzden, likenlerin felsefede ve felsefece ele alınmaları epistemolojik açıdan mümkündür. Ortakyaşam organizmaları olarak bilinen likenlerin ikili doğası, bireysel ortakların bireyler halinde tekil yaşadıkları durumlarda gözlemleyemediğimiz bazı beliren (İng. emergent) özelliklere yol açar. Bu çalışmada, likenlerin bölünemez bireyler (İng. indivisible individuals) olup olmadığı sorusundan hareketle liken tallusunun nispeten dengeli bir sistem ve hatta minyatür bir ‘ekosistem’ olduğu konusu ele alınacaktır. Sonuç olarak biyolojik olgu ve olayların gerek tanımlanmalarında gerek açıklanmalarında metodolojik aygıt olarak belirmenin (Ar. zuhur, İng. emergence) dikkate alınması önerilecektir. Biyolojik bilgiden hareketle felsefe özellikle de biyofelsefe ve etik bakımından likenler model organizmalar olarak ele alınacak hem bireyler hem topluluklar ve toplumlar için bir arada yaşama ilkeleri belirlenebileceği öne sürülecektir.

Keywords

• belirimcilik
• biyofelsefe
• biyoloji felsefesi
• metabiyoloji
• simbiyoz

References

1. Acharius, E. (1803). Methodus qua omnes detectos Lichenes: Secundum organa carpomorpha, ad genera, species et varietates. Impensis F.D.D. Ulrich.
2. Acharius, E. (1810). Lichenographia universalis. In qua Lichenes omnes detectos, adiectis observationibus et figuris horum vegetabilium naturam et organorum carpomorphorum structuram illustrantibus, ad genera, species, varietates differentiis et observationibus sollicite definitas. Apud Iust. Frid. Danckwerts.
3. Açıkgöz, B., Karaltı, İ., Ersöz, M., Coşkun, Z. M., Çobanoğlu, G., & Sesal, C. (2013). Screening of antimicrobial activity and cytotoxic effects of two Cladonia species. Zeitschrift für Naturforschung C, 68(5-6), 191-197.
4. Büdel, B., & Scheidegger, C. (2008). Thallus Morphology and Anatomy. İçinde T. H. Nash (Ed.), Lichen Biology (2. bs, ss. 40-68). Cambridge University Press.
5. Coccia, E. (2021). Bitkilerin Yaşamı Bir Karışım Metafiziği (K. Kahveci, Çev.). Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları.
6. Cooper, R. (1953). The Role of Lichens in Soil Formation and Plant Succession. Ecology, 34(4), 805-807. https://doi.org/10.2307/1931347
7. Corning, P. A. (1983). The Synergism Hypothesis: A Theory of Progressive Evolution. McGraw-Hill.
8. Coşkun, Z. M., Ersöz, M., Açıkgöz, B., Karaltı, İ., Çobanoğlu, G., & Sesal, C. (2014). Cytotoxic, anti-proliferative and anti-microbial activities of extract from Cladonia pocillum. de Bary, H. A. (1878). Ueber Symbiose. Tageblatt der 51. Versammlung Deutscher Naturforscher und Ärzte, 5, 121-126. de Bary, H. A. (1879). Die Erscheinung der Symbiose. Verlag von Karl J. Trübner.

9. Dupré, J., & Nicholson, D. J. (2018). A Manifesto for a Processual Philosophy of Biology. İçinde D. J. Nicholson & J. Dupré (Ed.), Everything Flows Towards a Processual Philosophy of Biology (ss. 3-45). Oxford University Press.
10. Edwards, M. R. (1992). Symbiotic Leadership: A Creative Partnership for Managing Organizational Effectiveness. Business Horizons, May-June, 28-33.
11. Eisenreich, W., Knispel, N., & Beck, A. (2011). Advanced methods for the study of the chemistry and the metabolism of lichens. Phytochemistry Reviews, 10(3), 445-456. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11101-011-9215-3
12. Farrar, J. (1976). The lichen as an ecosystem: Observation and experiment. İçinde D. Brown, D. L. Hawksworth, & R. Bailey (Ed.), Lichenology: Progress and problems (ss. 385-406). Academic Press.
13. Frank, A. B. (1876). Ueber die biologischen Verhältnisse, des Thallus einigere Krusten-flechten. İçinde F. Cohn (Ed.), Beiträge Biologie der Pflanzen. (C. 2, ss. 123-197). J. U. Kern’s Verlag.
14. Gilbert, S. F., Sapp, J., & Tauber, A. I. (2012). A symbiotic view of life: We have never been individuals. The Quarterly Review of Biology, 87(4), 325-341. https://doi.org/10.1086/668166
15. Grube, M., & Hawksworth, D. L. (2024). Reflections on lichens as ecosystems. New Phytologist, 241, 972-973.
16. Grube, M., & Wedin, M. (2016). Lichenized Fungi and the Evolution of Symbiotic Organization. Microbiology Spectrum, 4(6), 10.1128/microbiolspec.funk-0011-2016. https://doi.org/10.1128/microbiolspec.funk-0011-2016
17. Guerrero, R., Margulis, L., & Berlanga, M. (2013). Symbiogenesis: The holobiont as a unit of evolution. International Microbiology, 16(3), 133-143. https://doi.org/10.2436/20.1501.01.188
18. Hamilton, W. D. (1964a). The genetical evolution of social behaviour. I. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 7(1), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-5193(64)90038-4
19. Hamilton, W. D. (1964b). The genetical evolution of social behaviour. II. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 7(1), 17-52. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-5193(64)90039-6
20. Hawksworth, D. L., & Grube, M. (2020). Lichens redefined as complex ecosystems. New Phytologist, 227, 1281-1283.
21. Hoşgör, K. (2016). Simbiyotik Bir Bakışla Dilin Evrimi. DTCF Dergisi, 56(2), 332-364. https://doi.org/10.1501/Dtcfder_0000001494
22. Kauffman, S. A. (2020). Fiziğin Ötesinde Bir Dünya Yaşamın Ortaya Çıkışı ve Evrimi (M. Havzalı, Çev.). Ginko Bilim.
23. Khakhina, L. N. (1992). Concepts of Symbiogenesis: A Historical and Critical Study of the Research of Russian Botanists (L. Margulis & M. McMenamin, Ed.; R. Coalson & S. Merkel, Çev.). Yale University Press.
24. Kosugi, M., Arita, M., Shizuma, R., Moriyama, Y., Kashino, Y., Koike, H., & Satoh, K. (2009). Responses to Desiccation Stress in Lichens are Different from Those in Their Photobionts. Plant and Cell Physiology, 50(4), 879-888. https://doi.org/10.1093/pcp/pcp043
25. Köksal, O. (2011). Organizasyonel Etkinliği Sağlamanın Yeni Yolu: Simbiyotik Liderlik. C.Ü. İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi, 12(1), 55-72.
26. Kropotkin, P. (1902). Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution. McClure, Phillips & Co.
27. Libby, E., Grochow, J. A., DeDeo, S., & Wolpert, D. (2016). A quantitative definition of organismality and its application to lichen. arXiv: Other Quantitative Biology. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.1612.00036
28. Linnaeus, C. (1753). Species Plantarum (C. 2). Laurentii Slavii.
29. Livingstone Smith, D. (2017). Introduction: Biophilosophy. Içinde D. Livingstone Smith (Ed.), How Biology Shapes Philosophy: New Foundations for Naturalism (ss. 1-8). Cambridge University Press.
30. Mancuso, S. (2022). Bitki Ulusu (L. Tonguç Basmacı, Çev.). Alfa Yayınları.
31. Margulis, L. (1990). Words as Battle Cries-Symbiogenesis and the New Field of Endocytobiology. BioScience, 40(9), 673-677. https://doi.org/10.2307/1311435
32. Margulis, L. (2001). Ortak Yaşam Gezegeni / Evrime Yeni Bir Bakış (E. Uluhan, Çev.). Varlık Yayınları.
33. Margulis, L., & Fester, R. (Ed.). (1991). Symbiosis as a Source of Evolutionary Innovation: Speciation and Morphogenesis. The MIT Press.
34. Mottershead, D., & Lucas, G. (2000). The Role of Lichens in Inhibitins Erosion of a Soluble Rock. The Lichenologist, 32(6), 601-609. https://doi.org/10.1006/lich.2000.0300
35. Nash, T. H. (Ed.). (2008). Lichen Biology (2. bs). Cambridge University Press.
36. O’Hara, E. P., Tom, R. D., & Moore, T. A. (1983). Determination of the In Vivo Absorption and Photosynthetic Properties of the Lichen Acarospora schleicheri Using Photo Acoustic Spectroscopy. Photochemistry and Photobiology, 38(6), 709-715. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-1097.1983.tb03604.x
37. Özyiğitoğlu, G. Ç., Açıkgöz, B., & Sesal, C. (2017). Lichen secondary metabolites: Synthesis pathways and biological activities. Acta Biologica Turcica, 29(4), 150-163.
38. Paracer, S. P., & Ahmadjian, V. A. (2000). Symbiosis: An Introduction to Biological Associations (2. bs). Oxford University Press.
39. Ranković, B., & Kosanić, M. (2015). Lichens as a Potential Source of Bioactive Secondary Metabolites. İçinde B. Ranković (Ed.), Lichen Secondary Metabolites: Bioactive Properties and Pharmaceutical Potential (ss. 1-26). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-13374-4_1
40. Sass, L., Csintalan, Z., Tuba, Z., & Vass, I. (1995). Changes in photosystem II activity during desiccation and rehydration of the desiccation tolerant lichen Cladonia convulata studied by chlorophyll fluorescence. Photosynthesis, 4, 553-556.
41. Schneider, J. G. (1818). Theophrasti Eresii quae Supersunt Opera et Excerpta Librorum (C. 1). Frid. Christ. Guil. Vogelii.
42. Schwendener, S. (1869). Die Algentypen Der Flechtengonidien: Programm Fur Die Rectoratsfeier Der Universitaet. Universitætsbuchdruckerei von C. Schultze.
43. Seaward, M. R. D. (2008). Environmental Role of Lichens. İçinde T. H. Nash (Ed.), Lichen Biology (2. bs, ss. 274-298). Cambridge University Press.
44. Seed, L., Wolseley, P., Gosling, L., Davies, L., & Power, S. A. (2013). Modelling relationships between lichen bioindicators, air quality and climate on a national scale: Results from the UK OPAL air survey. Environmental Pollution, 182, 437-447. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2013.07.045
45. Simondon, G. (2007). L’Individuation psychique et collective: À la lumière des notions de forme, information, potentiel et métastabilité. Aubier.
46. Smith, J. M., & Szathmary, E. (2019). Yaşamın Kökenleri (A. Uysal & G. Uysal, Çev.). Ginko Bilim.
47. Smith, W. (1849). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology (C. 1). Little & Brown.
48. Suárez, J. (2018). The importance of symbiosis in philosophy of biology: An analysis of the current debate on biological individuality and its historical roots. Symbiosis, 76(2), 77-96. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13199-018-0556-1
49. ten Veldhuis, M.-C., Ananyev, G., & Dismukes, G. C. (2020). Symbiosis extended: Exchange of photosynthetic O2 and fungal-respired CO2 mutually power metabolism of lichen symbionts. Photosynthesis Research, 143(3), 287-299. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11120-019-00702-0
50. Vainio, T. the table of contents E. A. (1890). Acta Societatis pro Fauna et Flora Fennica (C. 7). Heredum J. Simelii. Wimmer, F. (1854). Theophrasti Eresii Opera Quae Supersunt Omnia De Causis Plantarum (C. 2). B.G. Teubneri. Yavuz, M. (2012). Lichens Mentioned by Pedanios Dioscorides. Ethno Med, 6(2), 103-109.
51. Yavuz, M. (2013). Lichens in the Prescriptions of Pliny the Elder. Oltenia Studii şi comunicări Ştiinţele Naturii, 29(1), 115-119.
52. Yavuz, M. (2017). Liken Terimine Türkçe Bir Karşılık Önerisi. Avrasya Terim Dergisi, 5(1), 28-35.
53. Yavuz, M. (2018). A Comparative Study of Epiphytic Lichens Mentioned by Ibn Sina and Ibn al-Baytar. Medicina nei Secoli-Arte e Scienza, 30(2), 617-640.
54. Yavuz, M. (2019). Canlılık ve Canlılıkbilimi Üzerine Yeni Bir Değerlendirme. Kutadgubilig: Felsefe Bilim Araştırmaları, 40, 183-197.
55. Yavuz, M. (2020). Lichens in al-Biruni’s Kitab al-Saydanah fi al-Tibb. Early Science and Medicine, 25(2), 152-172.
56. Yavuz, M., & Çobanoğlu, G. (2010). Ethnological Uses and Etymology of the Word Usnea in Ebubekir Razi’s Liber Almansoris. The British Lichen Society Bulletin, 106, 3-12.
57. Yılmaz, Ö. (2022). Biyoloji Felsefesinde Organizma Kavramı. Kilikya Felsefe Dergisi, 1(1), 78-86.