Araştırma Makalesi
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Investigation of Sustainable Remanufacturing and Second Life Applications of Electric Vehicle Batteries

Yıl 2025, Cilt: 10 Sayı: 1, 1 - 30, 04.07.2025

Öz

Electric vehicles (EVs) are seen as an important solution for reducing carbon emissions and reducing dependence on fossil fuels. However, the lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) used in EVs have significant environmental impacts from their production, use and end-of-life. In this context, the circular economy approach offers an effective solution for electric vehicle batteries with the concepts of remanufacturing and second life to minimize these environmental impacts and increase resource efficiency. For EV batteries, circular economy means moving towards valuable processes such as remanufacturing, reuse and second life before recycling at end-of-life. Remanufacturing can be explained as the process of dismantling end-of-life batteries, replacing damaged or underperforming cells, and remanufacturing the battery to near factory standards. This process contributes to environmental sustainability by greatly reducing energy consumption and raw material requirements. However, technical challenges, lack of standardization and economic feasibility are key factors to consider in remanufacturing processes. Second life applications involve the use of electric vehicle batteries in stationary energy storage systems that require lower power when the batteries are too low in discharge capacity (typically 80-85%) to be used in vehicles. These applications offer significant opportunities in the integration of renewable energy sources, energy grid stability and backup energy systems. However, issues such as safety, performance optimization and cost are some of the major hurdles to be overcome in these processes. In this study, sustainable remanufacturing and second life reuse applications of electric vehicle batteries from a circular economy perspective are examined.

Kaynakça

  • [1] Shafique M, Ateeq M, Rafiq M, Azam A, Luo X. Prospects of recycling from end-of-life of Li-ion batteries on alleviating materials demand-supply gap in new electric vehicles in Asia. Waste Manage 2023;171:207–17. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.wasman.2023.08.033.
  • [2] Moïsé E, Rubínová S. Trade policies to promote the circular economy: A case study of lithium-ion batteries. Trade and environment working papers, no. 2023/01, OECD; 2023, http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/d75a7f46-en.
  • [3] Manjong NB, Bach V, Usai L, Marinova S, Burheim OS, Finkbeiner M, Strømman AH. A comparative assessment of value chain criticality of LithiumIon battery cells Sustain Mater Technol 2023;36: e00614. Http://dx.doi.org/10. 1016/j.susmat 2023.e00614.
  • [4] Gsell/Marscheider-Weidemann 2020 Gsell, M./Marscheider-Weidemann, F.: Second Life von E-Batterien: Potenziale und Marktbarrieren, 2020.
  • [5] Kampker A, Heimes HH, Offermanns C, Frank M, Klohs D, Nguyen K. Prediction of battery return volumes for 3R: Remanufacturing, reuse, and recycling. Energies 2023;16(19):6873. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en16196873.
  • [6] Islam MT, Iyer-Raniga U. Lithium-Ion battery recycling in the circular economy: A Review. Recycling 2022;7(3):33. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ recycling7030033.
  • [7] Antony Jose, S., Dworkin, L., Montano, S., Noack, W. C., Rusche, N., Williams, D., & Menezes, P. L. (2024). Pathways to Circular Economy for Electric Vehicle Batteries. Recycling, 9(5), 76. https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling9050076.
  • [8] Herrmann, F.; Rothfuss, F. Introduction to Hybrid Electric Vehicles, Battery Electric Vehicles, and off-Road Electric Vehicles. In Advances in Battery Technologies for Electric Vehicles; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2015; pp. 3–16.
  • [9] Can Güven, E., & Gedik, K. (2019). Ömrünü Tamamlamış Elektrikli Araç Bataryalarının Çevresel Yönetimi. Journal of the Institute of Science and Technology, 9(2), 726-737. https://doi.org/10.21597/jist.446170.
  • [10] Hamurcu, M., Çakır, E., & Eren, T. (2021). Kullanıcı Perspektifli Çok Kriterli Karar Verme ile Elektrikli Araçlarda Batarya Seçimi. International Journal of Engineering Research and Development, 13(2), 733-749. https://doi.org/10.29137/umagd.906805.
  • [11] Lima MCC, Pontes LP, Vasconcelos ASM, de Araujo Silva Junior W, Wu K. Economic Aspects for Recycling of Used Lithium-Ion Batteries from Electric Vehicles. Energies. 2022; 15(6):2203. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15062203.
  • [12] https://www.mobilityhouse.com/int_en/knowledge-center/article/second-life-storage-projects [accessed on 15 April 2025].
  • [13] TTGV, Öncül Proje Programı Batarya Geri Dönüşüm Ve İkincil Kullanım Teknolojileri Ön Araştırma Raporu, Mart 2025. [online] https://ttgv.org.tr/yayinlar/batarya-geri-donusum-ve-ikincil-kullanim-teknolojileri-on-arastirma-raporu.
  • [14] “Electric Vehicles. Available” [online] https://www.iea.org/energy-system/transport/electric vehicles [accessed on 30 August 2024].
  • [15] “Trends in the Electric Vehicle Industry”—Global EV Outlook 2024—AnalysisAvailable [online]: tps://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook 2024/trends-in-the-electric-vehicle-industry [accessed on 6 August 2024].
  • [16] What Is the Circular Economy, and Why Does It Matter That It’s Shrinking” Available [online] https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/06/what-is-the-circular-economy/
  • [17] Ibrahim, A.; Jiang, F. The Electric Vehicle Energy Management: An Overview of the Energy System and Related Modeling and Simulation. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2021, 144, 111049.
  • [18] Zhang, X.; Liang, Y.; Yu, E.; Rao, R.; Xie, J. Review of Electric Vehicle Policies in China: Content Summary and Effect Analysis. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2017, 70, 698–714.
  • [19] Ralls, A.M.; Leong, K.; Clayton, J.; Fuelling, P.; Mercer, C.; Navarro, V.; Menezes, P.L. The Role of Lithium-Ion Batteries in the Growing Trend of Electric Vehicles. Materials 2023, 16, 6063.
  • [20] Kıvrak, S., Özer, T., & Oğuz, Y. (2020). STM32f103C8 Mikroişlemcisi Kullanılarak Elektrikli Araçlar için Pasif Dengeleme Metodu Tabanlı Batarya Yönetim Sistemi Tasarımı ve Uygulaması. Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi Fen ve Mühendislik Bilimleri Dergisi, 20(3), 426-433. https://doi.org/10.35414/akufemubid.691456.
  • [21] “Electric Vehicles—Worldwide Statista Market Forecast. Available” [online] https://www.statista.com/outlook/mmo/electric vehicles/worldwide [accessed on 10 August 2024].
  • [22] Kastanaki E, Giannis A. Dynamic estimation of end-of-life electric vehicle batteries in the EU-27 considering reuse, remanufacturing and recycling options. J Clean Prod 2023; 393:136349. Http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023. 136349.
  • [23] Saez-de-Ibarra, A., Martinez-Laserna, E., Koch-Ciobotaru, C., Rodriguez, P., Stroe, D.-I., Swierczynski, M., 2015. Second-life battery energy storage system for residential demand response service. In: 2015 IEEE Int. Conf. Ind. Technol, pp. 2941–2948. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICIT.2015.7125532.
  • [24] Mohammadzadeh, N.; Zegordi, S.H.; Kashan, A.H.; Nikbakhsh, E. Optimal Government Policy-Making for the Electric Vehicle Adoption Using the Total Cost of Ownership under the Budget Constraint. Sustain. Prod. Consum. 2022, 33, 477–507.
  • [25] Regulation (EU) 2023/1542 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 July 2023 concerning batteries and waste batteries, amending Directive 2008/98/EC and Regulation (EU) 2019/1020 and repealing Directive 2006/66/EC.
  • [26] Pereira, P.M.; Vieira, C.S. A Literature Review on the Use of Recycled Construction and Demolition Materials in Unbound Pavement Applications. Sustainability 2022, 14, 13918.
  • [27] Marwan Hassini, Eduardo Redondo-Iglesias, Pascal Venet. Battery Passports for Second-Life Bat- teries: An Experimental Assessment of Suitability for Mobile Applications. Batteries, 2024, 10 (5), pp.153. 10.3390/batteries10050153. hal-04564165.

Elektrikli Araç Bataryalarının Sürdürülebilir Yeniden Üretimi ve İkinci Ömür Kullanım Uygulamalarının İncelenmesi

Yıl 2025, Cilt: 10 Sayı: 1, 1 - 30, 04.07.2025

Öz

Elektrikli araçlar (EA), karbon emisyonlarını ve fosil yakıtlara olan bağımlılığı azaltma gibi konularda önemli bir çözüm olarak görülmektedir. Ancak, elektrikli araçlarda kullanılan lityum iyon bataryaların (LIB) üretiminden, kullanımına ve ömrünün sonuna kadar olan süreçte bazı önemli çevresel etkileri bulunmaktadır. Bu bağlamda, döngüsel ekonomi yaklaşımı, bu çevresel etkilerin minimize edilmesi ve kaynak verimliliğinin artırılması için yeniden üretim ve ikinci ömür kavramları elektrikli araç bataryaları için etkili bir çözüm sunmaktadır. EA bataryaları açısından döngüsel ekonomi, kullanım ömrünün sonunda geri dönüşümden önce yeniden üretim, yeniden kullanım ve ikinci ömür gibi değerli süreçlere yönelmek anlamına gelir. Yeniden üretim, ömrünü tamamlamış bataryaların parçalanarak hasarlı veya yetersiz performans gösteren hücrelerinin yenilenmesi ve bataryanın fabrika standartlarına yakın bir performansla yeniden üretilmesi olarak açıklanabilmektedir. Bu süreç, enerji tüketimini ve hammadde ihtiyacını büyük ölçüde azaltarak çevresel sürdürülebilirliğe katkı sağlamaktadır. Ancak, teknik zorluklar, standardizasyon eksiklikleri ve ekonomik fizibilite, yeniden üretim süreçlerinde dikkate alınması gereken temel faktörlerdir. İkinci ömür uygulamaları, EA bataryalarının araçlarda kullanılamayacak kadar deşarj kapasitesine düştüğünde (genellikle %80-85) daha düşük güç gerektiren sabit enerji depolama sistemlerinde kullanılmasını içermektedir. Bu uygulamalar, yenilenebilir enerji kaynaklarının entegrasyonu, enerji şebekesinin kararlılığı ve yedek enerji sistemlerinde önemli fırsatlar sunmaktadır. Ancak, güvenlik, performans optimizasyonu ve maliyet gibi konular bu süreçlerde aşılması gereken bazı önemli engeller olarak öne çıkmaktadır. Bu çalışmada, elektrikli araç bataryalarının döngüsel ekonomi perspektifinde sürdürülebilir yeniden üretim ve ikinci ömür yeniden kullanım uygulamaları incelenmektedir.

Kaynakça

  • [1] Shafique M, Ateeq M, Rafiq M, Azam A, Luo X. Prospects of recycling from end-of-life of Li-ion batteries on alleviating materials demand-supply gap in new electric vehicles in Asia. Waste Manage 2023;171:207–17. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.wasman.2023.08.033.
  • [2] Moïsé E, Rubínová S. Trade policies to promote the circular economy: A case study of lithium-ion batteries. Trade and environment working papers, no. 2023/01, OECD; 2023, http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/d75a7f46-en.
  • [3] Manjong NB, Bach V, Usai L, Marinova S, Burheim OS, Finkbeiner M, Strømman AH. A comparative assessment of value chain criticality of LithiumIon battery cells Sustain Mater Technol 2023;36: e00614. Http://dx.doi.org/10. 1016/j.susmat 2023.e00614.
  • [4] Gsell/Marscheider-Weidemann 2020 Gsell, M./Marscheider-Weidemann, F.: Second Life von E-Batterien: Potenziale und Marktbarrieren, 2020.
  • [5] Kampker A, Heimes HH, Offermanns C, Frank M, Klohs D, Nguyen K. Prediction of battery return volumes for 3R: Remanufacturing, reuse, and recycling. Energies 2023;16(19):6873. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en16196873.
  • [6] Islam MT, Iyer-Raniga U. Lithium-Ion battery recycling in the circular economy: A Review. Recycling 2022;7(3):33. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ recycling7030033.
  • [7] Antony Jose, S., Dworkin, L., Montano, S., Noack, W. C., Rusche, N., Williams, D., & Menezes, P. L. (2024). Pathways to Circular Economy for Electric Vehicle Batteries. Recycling, 9(5), 76. https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling9050076.
  • [8] Herrmann, F.; Rothfuss, F. Introduction to Hybrid Electric Vehicles, Battery Electric Vehicles, and off-Road Electric Vehicles. In Advances in Battery Technologies for Electric Vehicles; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2015; pp. 3–16.
  • [9] Can Güven, E., & Gedik, K. (2019). Ömrünü Tamamlamış Elektrikli Araç Bataryalarının Çevresel Yönetimi. Journal of the Institute of Science and Technology, 9(2), 726-737. https://doi.org/10.21597/jist.446170.
  • [10] Hamurcu, M., Çakır, E., & Eren, T. (2021). Kullanıcı Perspektifli Çok Kriterli Karar Verme ile Elektrikli Araçlarda Batarya Seçimi. International Journal of Engineering Research and Development, 13(2), 733-749. https://doi.org/10.29137/umagd.906805.
  • [11] Lima MCC, Pontes LP, Vasconcelos ASM, de Araujo Silva Junior W, Wu K. Economic Aspects for Recycling of Used Lithium-Ion Batteries from Electric Vehicles. Energies. 2022; 15(6):2203. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15062203.
  • [12] https://www.mobilityhouse.com/int_en/knowledge-center/article/second-life-storage-projects [accessed on 15 April 2025].
  • [13] TTGV, Öncül Proje Programı Batarya Geri Dönüşüm Ve İkincil Kullanım Teknolojileri Ön Araştırma Raporu, Mart 2025. [online] https://ttgv.org.tr/yayinlar/batarya-geri-donusum-ve-ikincil-kullanim-teknolojileri-on-arastirma-raporu.
  • [14] “Electric Vehicles. Available” [online] https://www.iea.org/energy-system/transport/electric vehicles [accessed on 30 August 2024].
  • [15] “Trends in the Electric Vehicle Industry”—Global EV Outlook 2024—AnalysisAvailable [online]: tps://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook 2024/trends-in-the-electric-vehicle-industry [accessed on 6 August 2024].
  • [16] What Is the Circular Economy, and Why Does It Matter That It’s Shrinking” Available [online] https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/06/what-is-the-circular-economy/
  • [17] Ibrahim, A.; Jiang, F. The Electric Vehicle Energy Management: An Overview of the Energy System and Related Modeling and Simulation. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2021, 144, 111049.
  • [18] Zhang, X.; Liang, Y.; Yu, E.; Rao, R.; Xie, J. Review of Electric Vehicle Policies in China: Content Summary and Effect Analysis. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2017, 70, 698–714.
  • [19] Ralls, A.M.; Leong, K.; Clayton, J.; Fuelling, P.; Mercer, C.; Navarro, V.; Menezes, P.L. The Role of Lithium-Ion Batteries in the Growing Trend of Electric Vehicles. Materials 2023, 16, 6063.
  • [20] Kıvrak, S., Özer, T., & Oğuz, Y. (2020). STM32f103C8 Mikroişlemcisi Kullanılarak Elektrikli Araçlar için Pasif Dengeleme Metodu Tabanlı Batarya Yönetim Sistemi Tasarımı ve Uygulaması. Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi Fen ve Mühendislik Bilimleri Dergisi, 20(3), 426-433. https://doi.org/10.35414/akufemubid.691456.
  • [21] “Electric Vehicles—Worldwide Statista Market Forecast. Available” [online] https://www.statista.com/outlook/mmo/electric vehicles/worldwide [accessed on 10 August 2024].
  • [22] Kastanaki E, Giannis A. Dynamic estimation of end-of-life electric vehicle batteries in the EU-27 considering reuse, remanufacturing and recycling options. J Clean Prod 2023; 393:136349. Http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023. 136349.
  • [23] Saez-de-Ibarra, A., Martinez-Laserna, E., Koch-Ciobotaru, C., Rodriguez, P., Stroe, D.-I., Swierczynski, M., 2015. Second-life battery energy storage system for residential demand response service. In: 2015 IEEE Int. Conf. Ind. Technol, pp. 2941–2948. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICIT.2015.7125532.
  • [24] Mohammadzadeh, N.; Zegordi, S.H.; Kashan, A.H.; Nikbakhsh, E. Optimal Government Policy-Making for the Electric Vehicle Adoption Using the Total Cost of Ownership under the Budget Constraint. Sustain. Prod. Consum. 2022, 33, 477–507.
  • [25] Regulation (EU) 2023/1542 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 July 2023 concerning batteries and waste batteries, amending Directive 2008/98/EC and Regulation (EU) 2019/1020 and repealing Directive 2006/66/EC.
  • [26] Pereira, P.M.; Vieira, C.S. A Literature Review on the Use of Recycled Construction and Demolition Materials in Unbound Pavement Applications. Sustainability 2022, 14, 13918.
  • [27] Marwan Hassini, Eduardo Redondo-Iglesias, Pascal Venet. Battery Passports for Second-Life Bat- teries: An Experimental Assessment of Suitability for Mobile Applications. Batteries, 2024, 10 (5), pp.153. 10.3390/batteries10050153. hal-04564165.
Toplam 27 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil Türkçe
Konular Enerji
Bölüm Araştırma Makalesi
Yazarlar

Engin Özdemir 0000-0003-0882-332X

Halil Kayak 0009-0005-3258-2572

Yayımlanma Tarihi 4 Temmuz 2025
Gönderilme Tarihi 28 Şubat 2025
Kabul Tarihi 16 Nisan 2025
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2025 Cilt: 10 Sayı: 1

Kaynak Göster

IEEE E. Özdemir ve H. Kayak, “Elektrikli Araç Bataryalarının Sürdürülebilir Yeniden Üretimi ve İkinci Ömür Kullanım Uygulamalarının İncelenmesi”, Yekarum, c. 10, sy. 1, ss. 1–30, 2025, doi: 10,71208/yekarum.1649027.