Panoptik Yaklaşım Işığında Alternatif Medya ve Değişken Özellikleri

Year 2023, Issue: 15, 259 - 281, 29.12.2023

Halil Saç , Nurcan Törenli

https://doi.org/10.55609/yenimedya.1364918

Abstract

Alternatif medya, son yıllarda akademik ilgiyi üzerine çeken ve bu sayede önemli bir yazınsal birikime ulaşan bir çalışma konusu olmakla birlikte, bir paradoksu da içinde barındırmaktadır: İlgili yazında ne tür faaliyetlerin alternatif medya kapsamında olduğu muğlaklığının bugüne kadar giderilememiş olması. Üstelik bu kısıtlılığı aşmak adına oluşturulan alternatif medya tipolojilerindeki yaklaşımlar bile birbirini dışlayıcı özellikler sunabilmekte ve muğlaklığı derinleştirebilmektedir. Bu çalışmada söz konusu muğlaklığa ve nasıl aşılabileceğine odaklanılmaktadır. Akabinde Bailey, Cammaerts ve Carpentier sundukları ‘panoptik yaklaşım’da farklı yaklaşımların birleştirilmesinin işlevsel olabileceğini ifade etmektedir. Ancak panoptik yaklaşım potansiyel alternatif medya özelliklerini sıralı ve sistematik bir liste halinde sunmamaktadır. Bu çalışmada da panoptik yaklaşımdan hareketle, farklı tipolojilerindeki yaklaşımlarda ve literatürdeki diğer çalışmalarda değinilen özellikler Alternatif Medyanın Değişken Özellikleri isimli listede toplanmıştır. Listenin medya faaliyetlerinin alternatif medya olarak nitelendirilip nitelendirilemeyeceğinde fonksiyonel bir ‘turnusol kâğıdı’ olması beklenmektedir. Medya faaliyetleri, listedeki özelliklerin birkaçına değişken kombinasyonlar halinde sahip olup bu eksende alternatif medya olarak adlandırılabilir.

Keywords

Alternatif medya, Panoptik yaklaşım, Alternatif medyanın değişken özellikleri, Çatı terim, Alternatif medya tipolojileri

Supporting Institution

YOK

Alternative Media and Its Variable Characteristics in the Context of Panoptic Approach

Abstract

Although alternative media is a subject of study that has attracted academic attention in recent years and has thus reached a significant literary accumulation, it also contains a paradox: The fact that ambiguity of what kinds of activities fall within the scope of alternative media in the relevant literature has not been resolved to date. Moreover, even in alternative media typologies created to overcome this ambiguity, the approaches adopted can exhibit mutually exclusive characteristics, and this situation deepens the ambiguity instead of eliminating it. In this study, it's focused on this ambiguity and how it can be overcome. Bailey, Cammaerts, and Carpentier offer their “panoptic approach”, combining various approaches to determine alternative media activities. Although the panoptic approach provides a holistic understanding, it is thought to be deprived of an ordered and systematic list of potential alternative media characteristics. Based on the panoptic approach, this study has assembled the characteristics mentioned in different alternative media approaches and studies into a list called “Variable Characteristics of Alternative Media”. The list is expected to serve as a functional 'litmus paper' as to which media activities can and cannot be characterized as alternative media-specific and why. Media activities may have several of the characteristics in the list in varying combinations and thus be labeled as alternative media.

Keywords

Keywords: Alternative media, Panoptic approach, Variable characteristics of alternative media, Roof term, Alternative media typologies

References

• Albert, M. (1997, October). What makes alternative media alternative? Z Magazine http://subsol.c3.hu/subsol_2/contributors3/alberttext.html
• Armstrong, D. (1981). A trumper to arms: Alternative media in America. South End Press.
• Atkinson, J. (2006). Analyzing resistance narratives at the North American Anarchist Gathering. Journal of Communication Inquiry, 30(3), 251–272. https://doi.org/10.1177/0196859906287892
• Atkinson, J. D. (2015). Alternatif medya ve direniş siyaseti: Bir iletişim perspektifi. (G. Önem ve A. Akdeniz, Çev.). Kafka Yayınları.
• Atton, C. & Hamilton, J. F. (2008). Alternative Journalism. Sage Publications.
• Atton, C. (2002). Alternative media. Sage Publications.
• Atton, C. (2014). Alternatif medyaya bakış: Kuram ve metodoloji. B. Yanıkkaya ve B. Çoban (Ed.), Kendi Medyanı Yarat, Cilt 1 içinde (ss. 21-62). İstanbul: Kalkedon Yayınları.
• Bailey, O. G., Cammaerts, B., & Carpentier, N. (2007). Understanding alternative media. Open University Press.
• Bailey, O. G., Cammaerts, B., & Carpentier, N. (2015). Alternatif medyayı anlamak. (Ç. Öztürk, Çev.). Kafka Epsilon Yayıncılık.
• Beers, D. (2006). The public sphere and online, independent journalism. Canadian Journal of Education/Revue canadienne de l'éducation, 109-130. https://doi.org/10.2307/20054149
• Benjamin, W. (1934/2005). The author as producer. Selected Writings, 2, 1931-1934.
• Brecht, B. (1932/2000). The radio as a communication apparatus. In M. Silberman (Ed.), Bertolt Brecht on film and radio (pp. 41-46). Meuthen.
• Brunon-Ernst, M. A. (2013). Introduction. In M. A. Brunon-Ernst (Ed.), Beyond Foucault: New perspectives on Bentham's Panopticon. Ashgate.
• Chan, M. (2017). Media use and the social identity model of collective action: Examining the roles of online alternative news and social media news. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 94(3), 663-681. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077699016638837
• Couldry, N. (2003). ‘Beyond the hall of mirrors? Some theoretical reflections on the global contestation of media power.’ In N. Couldry and J. Curran (Eds.), Contesting media power: Alternative media in a networked world (pp. 39–54). Rowman and Littlefield.
• Couldry, N., & Curran, J. (2003). The paradox of media power. In N. Couldry and J. Curran (Eds.), Contesting media power: Alternative media in a networked world (pp. 3-15). Rowman and Littlefield.
• Couldry, N., & Dreher, T. (2007). Globalization and the public sphere: Exploring the space of community media in Sydney. Global Media and Communication, 3(1), 79-100. https://doi.org/10.1177/1742766507074360
• Coyer, K. (2007). Mysteries of the black box unbound: An alternative history of radio. In K. Coyer, T. Dowmunt and A. Fountain (Eds.), The alternative media handbook (pp. 15-28). Routledge.
• Curran, J., & Seaton, J. (2010). Power without responsibility: The press and broadcasting in Britain (7th ed.). Routledge.
• Çoban, S. (2011). Hegemonya aracı ve ideolojik aygıt olarak medya. [Doktora Tezi] Marmara Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Üniversitesi.
• Deane, J. (2007). Alternative media in development. In Coyer, K., Dowmunt, T., & Fountain, A. (Eds.), The alternative media handbook (pp. 206-212). Routledge.
• Deane, J. (2016). The role of independent media in curbing corruption in fragile settings. BBC Media Action. Retrieved 1 April 2021 from http://downloads.bbc.co.uk/mediaaction/policybriefing/curbing-corruption-in-fragile-settings-report.pdf
• Deleuze, G., & Guattari, F. (1987). A thousand plateaus: Capitalism and schizophrenia. (B. Massumi Translation and Foreword). University of Minnesota Press.
• Demirtaş, O. (2017). Başlangıçtan günümüze Türk basınında alternatiflik arayışları ve alternatif medya olgusu. Cinius Yayınları.
• Downey, J., & Fenton, N. (2003). New media, counter publicity and the public sphere. New Media & Society, 5(2), 185-202. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444803005002003
• Downing, J. (1984). Radical media: The political experience of alternative communication. South End Press.
• Downing, J. D. (2003). Audiences and readers of alternative media: The absent lure of the virtually unknown. Media, Culture & Society, 25(5), 625-645. https://doi.org/10.1177/01634437030255004
• Downing, J. D., Ford, T. V., Gil, G., & Stein, L. (2001). Radical media: Rebellious communication and social movements. Sage.
• Downing, J. D., Ford, T. V., Gil, G., & Stein, L. (2017). Radikal medya: İsyancıların iletişimi ve toplumsal hareketler. (Ü. Doğanay, O. Taş & İ. Ö. Taştan, Çev.). Ankara: İmge.
• Drew, J. (2013). A social history of contemporary democratic media. Routledge.
• Duncombe, S. R. (1996). ‘Notes from underground: Zines and the politics of underground culture’. In S. Berman ve J. Danky (Ed.), Alternative Library Literature:1994-1995 (pp. 312-319). McFarland.
• Duncombe, S. R. (1997) Notes from underground: Zines and the politics of alternative culture. Verso.
• Elin, L. (2003). The radicalization of Zeke Spier: How the Internet contributes to civic engagement and new forms of social capital. In M. McCaughey, & M. D. Ayers (Eds.), Cyberactivism (pp. 97-114). Routledge.
• Enzensberger, H. M. (1970/1979). Bir kitle iletişim araçları teorisinin oluşturucu öğeleri. Ünsal Oskay (Çev.). Birikim. Sayı: 58-59.
• Erdoğan, İ. (2002). Tekelleşme, medya ve medya pratikleri. Toplum ve Hekim, 17(6), 417-424. Erişim adresi: http://irfanerdogan.com/makaleler1/medyamedicine.pdf
• Foucault, M. (1995). Discipline and punish: The birth of the prison (Translated by A. Sheridan). Vintage Books.
• Fuchs, C. (2010). Alternative media as critical media. European Journal of Social Theory, 13(2), 173-192. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368431010362294
• Harcup, T. (2011). Alternative journalism as active citizenship. Journalism, 12(1), 15-31. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884910385191
• Harlow, S. & Salaverría, R. (2016). Regenerating journalism: Exploring the “alternativeness” and “digital-ness” of online-native media in Latin America. Digital journalism, 4(8), 1001-1019. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2015.1135752
• Holt, K., Ustad Figenschou, T., & Frischlich, L. (2019). Key dimensions of alternative news media. Digital Journalism, 7(7), 860-869. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2019.1625715
• Kenix, L. J. (2009). Blogs as alternative. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 14(4), 790-822. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2009.01471.x
• Kenix, L. J. (2011). Alternative and mainstream media: The converging spectrum. Bloomsbury.
• Kim, E. G., & Hamilton, J. W. (2006). Capitulation to capital? OhmyNews as alternative media. Media, Culture & Society, 28(4), 541-560. https://doi.org/10.1177/0163443706065028
• Langlois, A. & Dubois, F. (2015). Otonom medya: Direnişi ve muhalefeti canlandırmak. (Gülüm Şener, Çev.). Kafka Epsilon Yayıncılık.
• Langlois, A. Dubois, F. (Eds.). (2005). Autonomous media: Activating resistance and dissent. Cumulus Press.
• Lievrouw, L. (2011). Alternative and activist new media. Polity.
• Lievrouw, L. (2016). Alternatif ve aktivist yeni medya. (İ. S. Temizalp, Çev.). Kafka Yayınları.
• Marx, K. (1979). Ekonomi politiğin eleştirisine katkı. (S. Belli, Çev.) Sol Yayınları.
• McCaughey, M., & Ayers, M. D. (Eds.). (2003). Cyberactivism: Online activism in theory and practice. Routledge.
• Meikle, G. (2002). Future active: Media activism and the Internet. Routledge.
• Milioni, D. L. (2009). Probing the online counterpublic sphere: The case of Indymedia Athens. Media, Culture & Society, 31(3), 409-431. https://doi.org/10.1177/0163443709102714
• Moyo, L. (2011). Blogging down a dictatorship: Human rights, citizen journalists and the right to communicate in Zimbabwe. Journalism, 12(6), 745-760. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884911405469
• O'Sullivan, T., Hartley, J., Saunders, D., Montgomery, M., & Fiske, J. (1994). Key concepts in communication and cultural studies. Routledge.
• Owens, L., & Palmer, L. K. (2003). Making the news: Anarchist counter-public relations on the World Wide Web. Critical Studies in Media Communication, 20(4), 335-361. https://doi.org/10.1080/0739318032000142007
• Özbek, M. (2004). Giriş: Kamusal alanın sınırları. M. Özbek (Ed.) Kamusal alan içinde (ss. 19-90). Hil Yayın.
• Öztürk, Ş. (2020). Dijital kültürde alternatif medyanın haber üretim süreci ve gazetecilik alanının dönüşmesi [Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi]. Ankara Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Ankara.
• Page, B. I., & Tannenbaum, J. (1996). Populistic deliberation and talk radio. Journal of Communication, 46(2), 33-54. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1996.tb01473.x
• Pickard, V. W. (2006). Assessing the radical democracy of Indymedia: Discursive, technical, and institutional constructions. Critical Studies in Media Communication, 23(01), 19-38. https://doi.org/10.1080/07393180600570691
• Pimlott, H. F. (2004). From the Margins to the Mainstream: The Promotion and Distribution of Marxism Today. Journalism: Theory, Practice & Criticism, 5(2), 203–226. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884904520
• Pimlott, H. F. (2014). Sınırlardan anaakıma: Marxism Today’in Tanıtım ve Dağıtımı. B. Yanıkkaya ve B. Çoban (Ed.), Kendi Medyanı Yarat, Cilt 2 içinde (ss. 101-132). Kalkedon Yayınları.
• Poell, T., & Borra, E. (2012). Twitter, YouTube, and Flickr as platforms of alternative journalism: The social media account of the 2010 Toronto G20 protests. Journalism, 13(6), 695-713. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884911431533
• Rauch, J. (2007). Activists as interpretive communities: Rituals of consumption and interaction in an alternative media audience. Media, Culture & Society, 29(6), 994-1013. https://doi.org/10.1177/0163443707084345
• Rauch, J. (2021). Resisting the news: Engaged audiences, alternative media, and popular critique of journalism. Routledge.
• Rennie, E. (2006). Community media: A global introduction. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
• Rodriguez, C. (2003). ‘The bishop and his star: Citizens Communication in Southern Chile.’ In N. Couldry and J. Curran (Eds.), Contesting media power: Alternative media in a networked world (pp. 177–194). Rowman and Littlefield Publishers.
• Rohlinger, D. A., Kail, B., Taylor, M., & Conn, S. (2012). Outside the Mainstream: Social Movement Organization Media Coverage in Mainstream and Partisan News Outlets. Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change, Vol. 33, 51–80. https://doi.org/10.1108/S0163-786X(2012)0000033006
• Saç, H. (2022). Alternatif medyanın değişen anlamı ve rolü: YouTube’daki gazetecilik pratikleri üzerine bir analiz [Yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi]. Ankara Üniversitesi.
• Salter, L. (2003). Democracy, new social movements, and the Internet: A Habermasian analysis. In M. McCaughey, & M. D. Ayers (Eds.), Cyberactivism (pp. 117-144). Routledge.
• Sandoval, M. & Fuchs, C. (2010). Towards a critical theory of alternative media. Telematics and Informatics, 27(2), 141-150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2009.06.011
• Sandoval, M. (2009). A critical contribution to the foundations of alternative media studies. Kurgu, 22(1), 1-18.
• Schmidt, A. (2015). Bağımsız habercilik: Uluslararası dayanışmanın inşası için bir araç. Andrea Langlois & Frederic Dubois (Der.), Otonom medya: Direnişi ve muhalefeti canlandırmak içinde. (Gülüm Şener, Çev.). Kafka Epsilon Yayıncılık: 78-91.
• Stein, L. (2009). Social movement web use in theory and practice: A content analysis of US movement websites. New Media & Society, 11(5), (5), 749-771. https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448091053
• Sweet, M., Pearson, L., & Dudgeon, P. (2013). @ IndigenousX: A case study of community-led innovation in digital media. Media International Australia, 149(1), 104-111.
• Taş, O. (2010). Gazeteciliğin doğuşu: Eleştirel bir tarih yazımına doğru. Mülkiye, 34(269), 29-66.
• Taylan, A. (2012). Alternatif medya ve Bianet örneği: Türkiye'de alternatif medyaya dair etnografik çalışma. [Doktora Tezi]. Ankara Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Ankara.
• Toffler, A. (1980). The third wave: The classic study of tomorrow. Bantam Books.
• Toffler, A. (1981). Üçüncü dalga. Altın Kitaplar Yayınevi.
• Thörn, H. (2007). Social movements, the media and the emergence of a global public sphere: From anti-apartheid to global justice. Current Sociology, 55(6), 896-918.
• Uzelman, S. (2015). Bambu bahçesinde yoğun emek: Medya aktivistleri ve yoğun emek. Andrea Langlois & Frederic Dubois (Der), Otonom medya: Direnişi ve muhalefeti canlandırmak içinde (s. 19-34). (Gülüm Şener, Çev.). Kafka Epsilon Yayıncılık.
• Vegh, S. (2003). Classifying forms of online activism: The case of cyberprotests against the World Bank. In M. McCaughey, & M. D. Ayers (Eds.), Cyberactivism (pp. 71-95). Routledge.
• Waltz, M. (2005). Alternative and activist media. Edinburgh University Press. Woods, M., Anderson, J., Guilbert:, & Watkin: (2013). Rhizomic radicalism and arborescent advocacy: A Deleuzo-Guattarian reading of rural protest. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 31(3), 434-450.