Possible Public Health Effects Resulting from Exposure to Air Pollution of Particulate Matter Generated from Limestone Industry

Year 2024, Volume: 5 Issue: 1, 21 - 43, 24.01.2024

Hilmi Salem

https://doi.org/10.55549/zbs.1406526

Abstract

The Limestone Industry (LSI) in the Occupied Palestinian Territories (OPT), erroneously known as the “Stone and Marble Industry (SMI)”, is a highly lucrative industry, contributing about 25% of the total Palestinian industrial revenues, and about 4.5% of the Gross National Product (GNP). However, although this industry is rewarding to Palestinians in the OPT, in terms of socioeconomics, employment, culture, and heritage, it comes with heavy burdens on the environment and public health. Long-term exposure to air pollution from particulate matter (PMs), generated particularly by LSI, increases the risk of many diseases and problems, including cardiovascular, respiratory, cancers, pregnancy problems, and newborn defects. This paper investigates the effects of LSI on public health in the OPT, by analyzing PMs measurements of different particulate sizes (1.0, 2.5, 7.5, and 10.0 μg/m3) emitted by LSI. The PMs measurements are compared with the World Health Organization’s (WHO) guidelines. It has been found that fine PMs, which fly into the air and settle in slurry waste (wet and dry) and dumped in open areas, cause high levels of pollution to the air, water, soil, and green cover, leading to damages of citizens’ health, especially those citizens who are living within the LSI’s proximities. More research is needed to further clarify the direct effects of LSI on public health, the environment, green cover, water systems and, in general, quality of life. Population should also exert more pressures on those in charge and the LSI’s owners to make them abide with, and ensure that, the maximum levels of various pollutants recommended by WHO are not violated.

Keywords

Limestone industry;, Particulate matter;, Occupied Palestinian Territories.

References

• [1] ILO (International Labour Organization). Diagnostic and exposure criteria for occupational diseases Guidance notes for diagnosis and prevention of the diseases in the ILO List of Occupational Diseases (revised 2010). Niu S, Colosio C, Carugno M, Adisesh A (Eds.). ILO, Geneva, Switzerland. ISBN 978-92-2-035683-8 (Print), ISBN 978-92-2-035682-1 (Web PDF). 2022.
• [2] Bwalya D, Bråtveit M, Moen BE. Chronic respiratory symptoms among workers at a limestone factory in Zambia. Archives of Environmental & Occupational Health. 2011;66(1):47–50. doi:10.1080/19338244.2010.506498. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21337186/
• [3] Dhatrak SV, Nandi SS, Chatterjee DM, Dhumne UL. Health status evaluation of limestone mine workers. National Journal of Community Medicine. 2014;5(4, October–December):410–413. https://njcmindia.com/index.php/file/article/view/1425
• [4] Tolinggi S, Nakoe R, Inne A, Gobel J, Sengke S, Keman I, Sudiana R, Yudhastuti R, Mukono R, Azizah R. Effect inhaling of limestone dust exposure on increased level of il-8 serum and pulmonary function decline to workers of limestone mining. International Refereed Journal of Engineering and Science. 2014;3(8-August):66-72.
• [5] Hedges JC, Singer CA, Gerthoffer WT. Mitogen-activated protein kinases regulate cytokine gene expression in human airway myocytes. American Journal of Respiratory Cell and Molecular Biology, 2000;23(1):86–94.
• [6] Brat DJ, Bellail AC, Van Meir EG. The role of interleukin-8 and its receptors in gliomagenesis and tumoral angiogenesis. Neuro-Oncology. 2005;7(2):122–133.
• [7] Gobel IA, Mukono J, Sukmono RE. Effect of limestone dust exposure on lung physiology decline and increase of interleukin6 level of blood serum of limestone processing workers in Kesamben Village, Plumpang Sub-district of Tuban Regency. Research Journal of Pharmaceutical, Biological and Chemical Sciences, 2015;6(4-June-August):530–538.
• [8] Ferguson-Smith AC, Chen YF, Newman MS, May LT, Sehgal PB, Ruddle FH. Regional localization of the interferon-beta 2/B-cell stimulatory factor 2/hepatocyte stimulating factor gene to human chromosome 7p15-p21. Genomics. 1988;2(3):203–208. doi:10.1016/0888-7543(88)90003-1.
• [9] Haseeb Z, Rana A, Naseer N, Aftab A, Haseeb A, Chaudhry MN, Majid M. Monitoring of environment, health and socio-economic impacts of limestone quarrying near Chakwal, Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Science. 2018;70(4 December): 334-341.
• [10] Suherdin S, Molya KD, Kurniawati RD. Dust exposure to the lung function capacity of limestone industry workers in West Bandung Regency. Jurnal Ilmu Kesehatan Masyarakat (JIKM). 2019;10(3):172183.
• [11] Nemer M, Giacaman R, Husseini A. Lung function and respiratory health of populations living close to quarry sites in Palestine: A cross-sectional study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020;17(17):6068. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17176068
• [12] Krause AAK, Souza EHdaS, Soares JCM. Quality of life of limestone industry workers and the community around the industrial district in Caçapava Do Sul-Rs. BioMedical. 2021;40(2-November):32043–32046. DOI: 10.26717/BJSTR.2021.40.006420.
• [13] Hamdan FS, NM, El-Ashgarm, Musalam AMA. Respiratory health risks of limestone factories’ dust: Gaza City as a case study. Israa University Journal of Applied Science. 2021;5(1-October):74–86.
• [14] Nalapraya WY, Susanto AD, Ikhsan M, Mansyur M, Marliana M. Proportion of Pneumoconiosis in limestone mining workers in Citatah Village, West Bandung District. Respiratory Science. 2021;1(2):98–115. https://respiratoryscience.or.id/index.php/journal/article/download/10/10
• [15] Utomo SW, Ni’mah Z, Asyary A. The correlation of limestone dust exposure to lung function impairment in limestone mining’s workers, Centre Java, Indonesia. Open Access Macedonian Journal of Medical Sciences, 2021;11(9-E):265–272.
• [16] Salem HS. Cancer status in the Occupied Palestinian Territories: Types; incidence; mortality; sex, age, and geography distribution; and possible causes. Journal of Cancer Research and Clinical Oncology. 2022; 149:5139–5163 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00432-022-04430-2
• [17] Vats, S. Impact of stone mining on the health and environment: A study of the village of Mewat, India. Journal of Earth and Environmental Sciences Research, 2022;4(5):1–4. DOI:10.47363/JEESR/2022(4)185
• [18] Sabir MA, Guo W, Nawaz MF, Yasin G, Yousaf MTB, Gul S, Hussain T, Rahman SU. Assessing the effects of limestone dust and lead pollution on the ecophysiology of some selected urban tree species. Frontiers in Plant Science. 2023;14:1144145. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1144145.
• [19] Alqadi SB, Alamleh D, Naser Eldin I, Naser Eldin H. A comparative life cycle energy and greenhouse emissions of natural and artificial stone-manufacturing phase. Results in Engineering. 2023;18, June: 101055. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2023.101055
• [20] STRATOS. Effects of limestone mining on the environment and human health. 2023. https://stratos.ro/en/blog-efectele-exploatarii-calcarului-asupra-mediului-inconjurator-si-sanatatii-umane/ Accessed 17 December 2023.
• [21] Salem HS. Evaluation of the Stone and Marble Industry in Palestine: environmental, geological, health, socioeconomic, cultural, and legal perspectives, in view of sustainable development. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 2021;28:28058–28080.
• [22] PCBS (Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics). Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS) presents the conditions of Palestinian populations on the occasion of the International Population Day, 11/07/2022 – A world of 8 billion: “Towards a resilient future: Harnessing opportunities and ensuring rights and choices for all.” About 14.3 Million Palestinians in Historical Palestine and Diaspora. Ramallah, Palestine. 2022 (July 11). https://pcbs.gov.ps/post.aspx?lang=en&ItemID=4279 Accessed 17 December 2023.
• [23] Orr JMA (Ed). Entry for “Geology of Palestine.” International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. 1915. https://www.biblestudytools.com/dictionary/geology-of-palestine/ Accessed 17 December 2023.
• [24] Makhool B, Abu-Alrob M. Quarrying, crushing and stone industries in Palestine: Current situation and prospects. Palestine Economic Policy Research Institute (MAS), Ramallah, Palestine. 1999 (April). https://library.palestineeconomy.ps/public/files/server/20142511163038-1.pdf
• [25] Qanazi S, Zawawi Z. Stone-Industry in Palestine: Bridging the gap between environmental sustainability and economical value. Papers in Applied Geography. 2021;8(1):12–34.
• [26] Salem HS. No sustainable development in the lack of environmental justice. Environmental Justice. 2019a;12(3):140–157. https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/env.2018.0040
• [27] Salem HS. Geopolitical challenges, complexities, and future uncertainties in the Occupied Palestinian Territories: Land and population’s perspectives. New Middle Eastern Studies. 2020a;10(1):45–82.
• [28] Salem HS. The potential of wind energy in Palestine with healthcare and residential examples in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. Journal of Nature Science and Sustainable Technology. 2019b;13(2):73–97.
• [29] Salem HS. The necessity of rural electrification in the Occupied Palestinian Territories: Status, challenges, and opportunities, with the case study of the Jubbet Ad-Dib village, Bethlehem Governorate. Journal of Nature Science and Sustainable Technology. 2019c;13(2): 99–131.
• [30] Salem HS. Agriculture status and women’s role in agriculture production and rural transformation in the Occupied Palestinian Territories. Journal of Agriculture and Crops. 2019d;5(8-August):132–150. DOI:https://doi.org/10.32861/jac.5(8)132.150
• [31] Salem HS. Sources of indoor air pollutants in the Occupied Palestinian Territories, including Skunk liquid, household cleaning products, and others. Journal of Environmental Pollution and Control. 2019e;2(1):106.
• [32] Salem HS. Air pollution caused by stone and marble industry in Palestine and its impacts on health. A Paper presented at the First International Conference on Applications of Air Quality in Science and Engineering Purposes, Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research (KISR), Shuwaikh, Kuwait City, Kuwait. 10–12 February 2020b.
• [33] Salem HS. Difficulties, problems, limitations, challenges, and corruption facing cancer patients in the Occupied Palestinian Territories: The West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and the Gaza Strip. Med Discoveries, 2023b;2(3): 1024.
• [34] Salem HS. Potential Solutions for the Water Conflict between Palestinians and Israelis. In: Hussein Amery (Ed.). Enhancing Water Security in the Middle East. MENA Water Security Task Force, Al Sharq Strategic Research, Al Sharq Forum, Istanbul, Turkey; and Colorado School of Mines, Denver, CO, USA. Published on 20 March 2023. 2023a.
• [35] Salem HS, Pudza MY, Yihdego Y. Water strategies and water–food Nexus: challenges and opportunities towards sustainable development in various regions of the World. Sustainable Water Resources Management. 2022;8:114:54p.
• [36] Akther T, Ahmed M, Shohel M, Ferdousi FK, Salam A. Particulate matters and gaseous pollutants in indoor environment and association of ultra-fine particulate matters (PM1) with lung function. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 2019; 26:5475–5484.
• [37] Embiale A, Zewge F, Chandravanshi BS, Sahle-Demessie E. Short-term exposure assessment to particulate matter and total volatile organic compounds in indoor air during cooking Ethiopian sauces (Wot) using electricity, kerosene and charcoal fuels. Indoor and Built Environment. 2019;28(8):1140–1154.
• [38] Seiyaboh EI, Angaye TCN, Ogidi OI. Environmental and health risk assessment of particulate matter associated with dusty football field. Journal of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology. 2019;1(2). DOI: 10.14302/issn.2641-7669.ject-19-
• [39] Wang X, Xu Z, Su H, Ho HC, Song Y, Zheng H, Hossain MZ, Khan MA, Bogale D, Zhang H, Wei J, Cheng J. Ambient particulate matter (PM1, PM2.5, PM10) and childhood pneumonia: The smaller particle, the greater short-term impact? Science of The Total Environment. 2021;772:145509.
• [40] Wang Z, Zhai Z, Chen C, Tian X, Xing Z, Xing P, Yang Y, Zhang J, Wang C, Dong L. Air pollution particles hijack peroxidasin to disrupt immunosurveillance and promote lung cancer. eLife. 2022;11:e75345.
• [41] WHO (World Health Organization). Air quality guidelines. global update 2005. Particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland. 2005a. ISBN 92 890 2192 6.
• [42] WHO (World Health Organization). WHO air quality guidelines for particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide. Global update 2005 - Summary of risk assessment. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland. 2005b.
• [43] WHO (World Health Organization). Report - WHO Air Quality Database (Update 2022). WHO, Geneva, Switzerland. 2022a. https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/themes/air-pollution/who-air-quality-database Accessed 17 December 2023.
• [44] Bluvshtein N, Mahrer Y, Sandler A, Rytwo G. Evaluating the impact of a limestone quarry on suspended and accumulated dust. Atmospheric Environment. 2011;45, 9(March):1732–1739.
• [45] Csavina J, Field J, Félix O, Corral-Avitia AY, Sáez AE, Betterton EA. Effect of wind speed and relative humidity on atmospheric dust concentrations in semi-arid climates. Science of The Total Environment. 2014;487:82–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.03.138
• [46] Drahler D, Fishbain B. Studying the effects of a limestone quarry on the nearby population’s exposure to PM. The ISES-ISEE 2018 Joint Annual Meeting theme is “Addressing Complex Local and Global Issues in Environmental Exposure and Health. ISES-ISEE 2018, 26–30 August 2018, Ottawa, Canada.
• [47] IQAir (2022). How wind and weather affect air pollution. Updated 16 November 2022. https://www.iqair.com/newsroom/wind-weather-air-pollution Accessed 17 December 2023.
• [48] WHO (World Health Organization). 1 in 3 people globally do not have access to safe drinking water – UNICEF, WHO. 18 June 2019.
• [49] WHO (World Health Organization). Air Pollution. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland. 2022b. https://www.who.int/health-topics/air-pollution#tab=tab_1 Accessed 17 December 2023. [50] Fuller R, Landrigan PJ, Balakrishnan K, Bathan G, Bose-O'Reilly S, Brauer M, et al. Pollution and health: a progress update. The Lancet Planetary Health. 2022;6(6-June):E535-E547.
• [51] WHO (World Health Organization). Billions of people still breathe unhealthy air: new WHO data. Over 6000 cities now monitor air quality. WHO, WHO, Geneva, Switzerland. 2022c. https://www.who.int/news/item/04-04-2022-billions-of-people-still-breathe-unhealthy-air-new-who-data Accessed 17 December 2023.
• [52] WHO (World Health Organization). Ambient (outdoor) air pollution. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland. 22 September 2021. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ambient-(outdoor)-air-quality-and-health Accessed 17 December 2023.
• [53] Salem HS. Health aspects of air quality in Palestine (Occupied). The First Africa/Middle East Expert Consultation/Workshop on the Impact of Airborne Dust on Health. WHO-CEHA, UNEP, WMO, EUMSTAT, and AEMET, Amman, Jordan, 2–5 November 2015.
• [54] Salem HS. Indoor air pollution sources (particularly Skunk) and their impacts on health and the environment in the Occupied Palestinian Territories. In Yassin, MF (Ed): Proceeding of Workshop on Air Quality in Hot Arid Climate (IAQHAC). Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research (KISR), Shuwaikh, Kuwait City, Kuwait, 3–4 April 2017. pp: 204–221.
• [55] Sivacoumar R, Jayabalou R, Subrahmanyam YV, Jothikumar N, Swarnalatha S. Air pollution in stone crushing industry, and associated health effects. Indian Journal of Environmental Health. 2001;43(4-October):169–173. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12395522/
• [56] Wong CM, Tsang H, Lai HK, Thomas GN, Lam KB, Chan KP, Zheng Q, Ayres JG, Lee SY, Lam TH, Thach TQ. Cancer mortality risks from long-term exposure to ambient fine particle. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Preention. 2016;25(5):839–845. DOI: 10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-15-0626.
• [57] Leon-Kabamba N, Ngatu NR, Kakoma, SJ, Nyembo C, Mbelambela EP, Moribe RJ, Wembonyama S, Danuser B, Oscar-Luboya N. Respiratory health of dust-exposed Congolese coltan miners. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health. 2018;91(7-October):859–864. doi: 10.1007/s00420-018-1329-0. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29951778/
• [58] Encecopedia.Com. Total suspended particles (TSP). Encyclopedia of Public Health. The Gale Group Inc. 2019. https://www.encyclopedia.com/education/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/total-suspended-particles-tsp Accessed 17 December 2023.
• [59] EPA (Environmental Protection Agency, USA). Particulate Matter (PM) Pollution: Particulate Matter (PM) Basics. Last updated 11 July 2023. https://www.epa.gov/pm-pollution/particulate-matter-pm-basics Accessed 17 December 2023.
• [60] EEA (European Environmental Agency). Air pollution: Most European city dwellers are exposed to unsafe levels of air pollution. Improving air quality to match World Health Organization (WHO)-recommended levels could prevent more than half of premature deaths caused by exposure to fine particulate matter. Last modified 21 July 2022.
• [61] Clarity. Particulate matter – Air quality measurements series: particulate matter. 2021 (September 16). https://www.clarity.io/blog/air-quality-measurements-series-particulate-matter Accessed 17 December 2023.
• [62] EPA (Environmental Protection Agency, USA). Review of the National Ambient Air Quality Standards for Particulate Matter – Policy Assessment of Scientific and Technical Information. OAQPS Staff Paper – Second Draft. January 2005.
• [63] NCI (National Cancer Institute). DNA. National Cancer Institute at the National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 2023. https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/genetics-dictionary/def/dna Accessed 17 December 2023.
• [64] NHGRI (National Human Genome Research Institute). Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA). Updated 23 July 2023. https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Deoxyribonucleic-Acid Accessed 17 December 2023.
• [65] WHO (World Health Organization). Health Profile 2015 – Palestine. WHO’s Regional Office for the Eastern Mediterranean, Amman, Jordan. WHO-EM/HST/232/E. 2016. https://rho.emro.who.int/sites/default/files/Profiles-briefs-files/EMROPUB_EN_18926-PAL.pdf
• [66] SGA (State of Global Air). Impacts on newborns: Nearly 500,000 newborns died in 2019 as a result of air pollution exposure. 2020. https://www.stateofglobalair.org/health/newborns Accessed 17 December 2023.
• [67] ERS (European Respiratory Society). Air pollution linked to increased risk of infant death and reduced lung function in children. 2023. https://www.ersnet.org/news-and-features/news/air-pollution-linked-to-increased-risk-of-infant-deaths-and-reduced-lung-function-in-children/ Accessed 17 December 2023.
• [68] Glinianaia SV, Rankin J, Bell R, Pless-Mulloli T, Howel D. Does particulate air pollution contribute to infant death? A systematic review. Environmental Health Perspectives. 2004;112(14-October):1365–1370.
• [69] Hajat S, Armstrong B, Wilkinson P, Busby A, Dolk H. Outdoor air pollution and infant mortality: Analysis of daily time‐series data in 10 English cities. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. 2007;61(8-August):719–722. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2653013/
• [70] Heft-Neal S, Burney J, Bendavid E, Voss KK, Burke M. Dust pollution from the Sahara and African infant mortality. Nature Sustainability. 2020;3:863–871.
• [71] Godfrey S, Tunhuma FA. The Climate Crisis Climate Change Impacts, Trends and Vulnerabilities of Children in Sub Saharan Africa. United Nations Children’s Fund Eastern and Southern Africa Regional Office, (UNICEF), Nairobi, Kenya. 2020
• [72] StC (Save the Children). Sub-Saharan Africa: 426 children per day at risk of death from hunger following impact of COVID-19. 1 September 2020. https://www.savethechildren.net/news/sub-saharan-africa-426-children-day-risk-death-hunger-following-impact-covid-19 Accessed 17 December 2023.
• [73] Knoema. Palestine - Neonatal mortality rate. World Data Atlas Palestine Health. 2021. Accessed 17 December 2023.
• [74] UNICEF (United Nations Children's Fund). State of Palestine: Humanitarian Situation Report, January–June 2019. July 26, 2019. https://www.unicef.org/media/76961/file/SoP-SitRep-Mid-Year-2019.pdf
• [75] Solomos S, Kalivitis N, Mihalopoulos N, Amiridis V, Kouvarakis G, Gkikas A, Binietoglou I, Tsekeri A, Kazadzis S, Kottas M, Pradhan Y. From tropospheric folding to Khamsin and Foehn winds: How atmospheric dynamics advanced a record-breaking dust episode in Crete. Atmosphere. 2018;9(7):240
• [76] Kaskaoutis DG, Dumka UC, Rashki A, Psiloglou BE, Gavriil A, Mofidi A, Petrinoli K, Karagiannis D, Kambezidis HD. Analysis of intense dust storms over the eastern Mediterranean in March 2018: Impact on radiative forcing and Athens air quality. Atmospheric Environment. 2019;209:23–39
• [77] CDCP (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). Climate effects on health. April 25, 2022. https://www.cdc.gov/climateandhealth/effects/default.htm Accessed 17 December 2023.
• [78] TNAS (Technology Networks Applied Sciences). Link made between air pollution, infant death and lung impairment. Original story from the European Lung Foundation. 27 September 2019. https://www.technologynetworks.com/applied-sciences/news/link-made-between-air-pollution-infant-death-and-lung-impairment-324425 Accessed 17 December 2023.
• [79] Chiarello DI, Abad C, Rojas D, Toledo F, Vázquez CM, Mate A, Sobrevia L, Marín R. Oxidative stress: Normal pregnancy versus preeclampsia. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta - Molecular Basis of Disease. 2020;1866,2:165354. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbadis.2018.12.005 ; https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0925443918304915
• [80] Vona R, Pallotta L, Cappelletti M, Severi C, Matarrese P. The impact of oxidative stress in human pathology: Focus on gastrointestinal disorders. Antioxidants (Basil) (A Special Issue Oxidative Stress and Inflammation in Health and Diseases). 2021;10(2):201
• [81] Lobo V, Patil A, Phatak A, Chandra N. Free radicals, antioxidants and functional foods: impact on human health. Pharmacognosy Reviews. 2010;4(8–Jul.-Dec.):118–126.
• [82] Ren S, Haynes E, Hall E, Hossain M, Chen A, Muglia L, Lu L, DeFranco E. Periconception exposure to air pollution and risk of congenital malformations. The Journal of Pediatrics. 2018;193(February):76–84.e6
• [83] Xiong L, Xu Z, Wang H, Liu Z, Xie D, Wang A, Kong F. The association between ambient air pollution and birth defects in four cities in Hunan province, China, from 2014 to 2016. Medicine. 2019;98(4):e14253. doi: 10.1097/MD.0000000000014253.
• [84] Padula AM, Tager IB, Carmichael SI, Hammond SK, Lurmann F, Shaw GM. The association of ambient air pollution and traffic exposures with selected congenital anomalies in the San Joaquin Valley of California. American Journal of Epidemiology. 2013;177(10-May):1074–1085.
• [85] Wu G, Brown J, Zamora ML, Miller A, Satterfield MC, Meininger CJ, Steinhauser CB, Johnson GA, Burghardt, RC, Bazer FW, Lie Y, Johnson NM, Molina MJ, Zhang R. Adverse organogenesis and predisposed long-term metabolic syndrome from prenatal exposure to fine particulate matter. The Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA (PNAS USA). 2019;116(24):11590–11595
• [86] AACR (American Association for Cancer Research). Air pollution may be associated with many kinds of cancer. Researchers urge better regulation to protect public health. 2013. https://www.aacr.org/patients-caregivers/progress-against-cancer/air-pollution-associated-cancer/ ; http://thisweekinpalestine.com/marble-from-the-holy-land-the-pillar-of-the-palestinian-export-sector/ Accessed 17 December 2023.
• [87] Turner M, Andersen ZJ, Baccarelli A, Diver WR, Gapstur SM, Pope III CA, Diddier P, Samet J, Thurston G, Cohen A. Outdoor air pollution and cancer: an overview of the current evidence and public health recommendations. CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians. 2020;76(6):460–479.
• [88] CR UK (Cancer Research UK). How can air pollution cause cancer? Last reviewed: August 17, 2021. https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/causes-of-cancer/air-pollution-radon-gas-and-cancer/how-can-air-pollution-cause-cancer Accessed 17 December 2023.
• [89] Chen K-C, Tsai S-W, Shie R-H, Zeng C, Yang HY. Indoor air pollution increases the risk of lung cancer. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022;19:1164. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19031164
• [90] Su S-Y, Liaw Y-P, Jhuang JR, Hsu S-Y, Chiang C-J, Yang Y-W, Lee W-C. Associations between ambient air pollution and cancer incidence in Taiwan: An ecological study of geographical variations. BMC Public Health. 2019;19:1496. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-019-7849-z
• [91] Alhmoud JF, Woolley JF, Al Moustafa AE, Malki MI. DNA damage/repair management in cancers. Cancers (Basel). 2020;12(4):1050. doi: 10.3390/cancers12041050.
• [92] Huang R, Zhou P-K. DNA damage repair: historical perspectives, mechanistic pathways and clinical translation for targeted cancer therapy. Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy. 2021;6:254.
• [93] GMfH (Gut Microbiota for Health). Gut Microbiota Info. Everything you always wanted to know about the gut microbiota. 2023. https://www.gutmicrobiotaforhealth.com/en/about-gut-microbiota-info/ Accessed 17 December 2023.
• [94] Jalil, AT, Thabit SN, Hanan ZK, Alasheqi MQ, Al‑Azzawi AKJ, Zabibah RS, Fadhil AA (2023). Modulating gut microbiota using nanotechnology to increase anticancer efficacy of the treatments. Macromolecular Research, Published online: 4 May 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13233-023-00168-z
• [95] StC (Save the Children). The impact of air pollution on child health. 25 January 2022. https://www.savethechildren.in/emergencies/the-impact-of-air-pollution-on-child-health/ Accessed 17 December 2023.