Monkeypox and other zoonotic poxviruses

Abstract

Poxviruses have caused the most important diseases for humanity for a long time. An important triumph was achieved with the eradication of smallpox, defined by the World Health Organization in 1979. Poxviruses include significant agents that cause important animal diseases that are non-zoonotic and zoonotic. While humanity has been battling COVID-19, a new battle against monkeypox has recently emerged due to an increase in case numbers and the outbreak's global spread. The other points of the 2022 monkeypox outbreak that make it more serious than previous outbreaks are severe clinical outcomes such as encephalitis and death, and also the higher transmission rate, which occurs at approximately 99% in men, especially those who have sex with men. The 2022 monkeypox virus outbreak has focused public and scientific attention on poxviruses and potential bioterrorism risks posed by poxviruses. Therefore, it is aimed at writing a review that compiles information about monkeypox, cowpox, vaccinia, bovine papular stomatitis, orf, pseudocowpox, gray seal pox, and red deerpox viruses.

Keywords

• monkeypox
• Poxviruses
• Zoonotic infections

References

1. Abrahão JS, Oliveira TM, Campos RK, et al (2009): Bovine vaccinia outbreaks: detection and isolation of vaccinia virus in milk samples. Foodborne Pathog Dis, 6, 1141-1146.
2. Abrahão JS, Silva-Fernandes AT, Assis FL, et al (2010): Human Vaccinia virus and Pseudocowpox virus co-infection: clinical description and phylogenetic characterization. J Clin Virol, 48, 69-72.
3. Abubakr MI, Abu-Elzein EM, Housawi FM, et al (2007): Pseudocowpox virus: the etiological agent of contagious ecthyma (Auzdyk) in camels (Camelus dromedarius) in the Arabian Peninsula. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis, 7, 257-260.
4. Adler H, Gould S, Hine P, et al (2022): Clinical features and management of human monkeypox: a retrospective observational study in the UK. Lancet Infect Dis, 22, 1153-1162.
5. Adriano AR, Quiroz CD, Acosta ML, et al (2015): Milker's nodule--Case report. An Bras Dermatol, 90, 407-410.
6. Ajmera KM, Goyal L, Pandit T, et al (2022): Monkeypox - An emerging pandemic. IDCases, 29, e01587.
7. Alajlan AM, Alsubeeh NA (2020): Orf (ecthyma contagiosum) transmitted from a camel to a human: a case report. Am J Case Rep, 21, e927579.
8. Alakunle E, Moens U, Nchinda G, et al (2020): Monkeypox Virus in Nigeria: Infection Biology, Epidemiology, and Evolution. Viruses, 12, 1257.

9. Anderson MG, Frenkel LD, Homann S, et al (2003): A case of severe monkeypox virus disease in an American child: emerging infections and changing professional values. Pediatr Infect Dis J, 22, 1093-1098.
10. Andreani J, Arnault JP, Bou Khalil JY, et al (2019): Atypical Cowpox Virus Infection in Smallpox-Vaccinated Patient, France. Emerg Infect Dis, 25, 212-219.
11. Anonymous (2022): An APOBEC3 molecular clock to estimate the date of emergence of hMPXV. Available at https://virological.org/t/an-apobec3-molecular-clock-to-estimate-the-date-of-emergence-of-hmpxv/885 (Accessed August 10, 2022).
12. Anonymous (2022): Texas Confirms First Death of a Person with Monkeypox. Available at https://dshs.texas.gov/ news-alerts/texas-confirms-first-death-of-a-person-with-monkeypox/ (Accessed September 4, 2022).
13. Assis FL, Borges IA, Mesquita VS, et al (2013): Vaccinia virus in household environment during bovine vaccinia outbreak, Brazil. Emerg Infect Dis, 19, 2045-2047.
14. Ata N, Göğüş HE, Kiliç S (2017): Giant orf on the nose. J Craniofac Surg, 28, e234-e235.
15. Bala JA, Balakrishnan KN, Abdullah AA, et al (2018): The re-emerging of orf virus infection: A call for surveillance, vaccination and effective control measures. Microb Pathog, 120, 55-63.
16. Barquet N, Domingo P (1997): Smallpox: the triumph over the most terrible of the ministers of death. Ann Intern Med, 127, 635-642.
17. Baughman B, Zhang S, Jin L, et al (2011): Diagnosis of deerpox virus infection in a white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) fawn. J Vet Diagn Invest, 23, 965-970.
18. Baxby D, Ashton DG, Jones DM, et al (1982): An outbreak of cowpox in captive cheetahs: virological and epidemiological studies. J Hyg (Lond), 89, 365-372.
19. Bayindir Y, Bayraktar M, Karadag N, et al (2011): Investigation and analysis of a human orf outbreak among people living on the same farm. New Microbiol, 34, 37-43.
20. Becher P, König M, Müller G, et al (2002): Characterization of sealpox virus, a separate member of the parapoxviruses. Arch Virol, 147, 1133-1140.
21. Beer EM, Rao VB (2019): A systematic review of the epidemiology of human monkeypox outbreaks and implications for outbreak strategy. PLoS Negl Trop Dis, 13, e0007791.
22. Bowman KF, Barbery RT, Swango LJ, et al (1981): Cutaneous form of bovine papular stomatitis in man. JAMA, 246, 2813-2818.
23. Bragazzi NL, Kong JD, Mahroum N, et al (2022): Epidemiological trends and clinical features of the ongoing monkeypox epidemic: A preliminary pooled data analysis and literature review. J Med Virol, 2022, 1-8.
24. Bülbül Başkan E, Yılmaz E, Doğruk S, et al (2005): Orf virus infection in pregnancy: a case report. Turkiye Klinikleri J Med Sci, 25, 137-139.
25. Bunge EM, Hoet B, Chen L, et al (2022): The changing epidemiology of human monkeypox-A potential threat? A systematic review. PLoS Negl Trop Dis, 16, e0010141.
26. Cabanillas B, Valdelvira R, Akdis CA (2022): Monkeypox outbreak in Europe, UK, North America, and Australia: A changing trend of a zoonotic disease. Allergy, 77, 2284-2286.
27. Campe H, Zimmermann P, Glos K, et al (2009): Cowpox virus transmission from pet rats to humans, Germany. Emerg Infect Dis, 15, 777-780.
28. CDC (2003): Multistate outbreak of monkeypox--Illinois, Indiana, and Wisconsin, 2003. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 52, 537-540.
29. CDC (2003): Update: multistate outbreak of monkeypox--Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Missouri, Ohio, and Wisconsin, 2003. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 52, 642-646.
30. CDC (2006): Orf virus infection in humans--New York, Illinois, California, and Tennessee, 2004-2005. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 55, 65-68.
31. CDC (2012): Human Orf virus infection from household exposures - United States, 2009-2011. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 61, 245-248.
32. CDC (2019): Vaccines. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/ smallpox/clinicians/vaccines.html (Accessed June 24, 2022).
33. CDC (2022): Pets in the Home. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/poxvirus/monkeypox/specific-settings/pets-in-homes.html (Accessed August 16, 2022).
34. Ceović R, Pasić A, Lipozencić J, et al (2007): Milker's nodule--case report. Acta Dermatovenerol Croat, 15, 88-91.
35. Cicculli V, Ayhan N, Luciani L, et al (2022): Molecular detection of parapoxvirus in Ixodidae ticks collected from cattle in Corsica, France. Vet Med Sci, 8, 907-916.
36. Clark C, McIntyre PG, Evans A, et al (2005): Human sealpox resulting from a seal bite: confirmation that sealpox virus is zoonotic. Br J Dermatol, 152, 791-793.
37. Costa GB, Borges IA, Alves PA, et al (2015): Alternative routes of zoonotic vaccinia virus transmission, Brazil. Emerg Infect Dis, 21, 2244-2246.
38. Costa GB, Miranda JB, Almeida GG, et al (2017): Detection of vaccinia virus in urban domestic cats, Brazil. Emerg Infect Dis, 23, 360-362.
39. Costa GB, Ribeiro de Almeida L, et al (2018): Vaccinia virus among domestic dogs and wild coatis, Brazil, 2013-2015. Emerg Infect Dis, 24, 2338-2342.
40. Costa H, Klein J, Breines EM, et al (2021): A comparison of parapoxviruses in North American pinnipeds. Front Vet Sci, 8, 653094.
41. Costello V, Sowash M, Gaur A, et al (2022): Imported Monkeypox from International Traveler, Maryland, USA, 2021. Emerg Infect Dis, 28, 1002-1005.
42. da Costa RA, Cargnelutti JF, Schild CO, et al (2019): Outbreak of contagious ecthyma caused by Orf virus (Parapoxvirus ovis) in a vaccinated sheep flock in Uruguay. Braz J Microbiol, 50, 565-569.
43. Dal Pozzo F, Martinelle L, Gallina L, et al (2011): Original findings associated with two cases of bovine papular stomatitis. J Clin Microbiol, 49, 4397-4400.
44. Damon IK (2007): Poxviruses. 2947-2975. In: DM Knipe, PM Howley (Eds), Fields Virology. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia.
45. De Baetselier I, Van Dijck C, Kenyon C, et al (2022): Retrospective detection of asymptomatic monkeypox virus infections among male sexual health clinic attendees in Belgium. Nat Med.
46. de Oliveira CH, Assis FL, Neto JD, et al (2012): Multifocal cutaneous ORF virus infection in goats in the Amazon region, Brazil. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis, 12, 336-340.
47. de Oliveira TML, Guedes MIMC, Rehfeld IS, et al (2018): Vaccinia virus detection in dairy products made with milk from experimentally infected cows. Transbound Emerg Dis, 65, e40-e47.
48. de Sant'Ana FJ, Rabelo RE, Vulcani VA, et al (2012): Bovine papular stomatitis affecting dairy cows and milkers in midwestern Brazil. J Vet Diagn Invest, 24, 442-445.
49. de Souza Trindade G, Drumond BP, Guedes MI, et al (2007): Zoonotic vaccinia virus infection in Brazil: clinical description and implications for health professionals. J Clin Microbiol, 45, 1370-1372.
50. Duchateau NC, Aerts O, Lambert J (2014): Autoinoculation with Orf virus (ecthyma contagiosum). Int J Dermatol, 53, e60-2.
51. Dugmore WN, Dabir ZM (1992): Cowpox virus. Br J Ophthalmol, 76, 510.
52. Duraffour S, Andrei G, Snoeck R (2010): Tecovirimat, a p37 envelope protein inhibitor for the treatment of smallpox infection. IDrugs, 13, 181-191.
53. EAZWV (2019): Transmissible Diseases Handbook, fifth edition. Available at https://www.eazwv.org/page/inf_ handbook (Accessed June 24, 2022).
54. Ebling R, Martins B, Jardim JC, et al (2020): Late development of pustular, erosive lesions in the muzzle of calves inoculated with Pseudocowpox virus. Microb Pathog, 143, 104122.
55. Erez N, Achdout H, Milrot E, et al (2019): Diagnosis of Imported Monkeypox, Israel, 2018. Emerg Infect Dis, 25, 980-983.
56. Eseigbe EE, Akude C, Osagie IA, et al (2021): Human Monkey Pox Virus Infection in Plateau State, North Central Nigeria: A Report of Two Cases. West Afr J Med, 38, 1242-1246.
57. Essbauer S, Pfeffer M, Meyer H (2010): Zoonotic poxviruses. Vet Microbiol, 140, 229-236.
58. Fairley RA, Mercer AA, Copland CI, et al (2013): Persistent pseudocowpox virus infection of the skin of a foot in a cat. N Z Vet J, 61, 242-243.
59. Falk ES (1978): Parapoxvirus infections of reindeer and musk ox associated with unusual human infections. Br J Dermatol, 99, 647-654.
60. FDA (2022): Smallpox Preparedness and Response Updates from FDA. Available at https://www.fda.gov/ emergency-preparedness-and-response/mcm-issues/smallpox- preparedness-and-response-updates-fda#:~:text=Aventis% 20Pasteur%20Smallpox%20Vaccine%20(APSV,depleted%20or%20not%20readily%20available. (Accessed August 16, 2022).
61. Ferrier A, Frenois-Veyrat G, Schvoerer E, et al (2021): Fatal Cowpox Virus Infection in Human Fetus, France, 2017. Emerg Infect Dis, 27, 2570-2577.
62. Foster SO, Brink EW, Hutchins DL, et al (1972): Human monkeypox. Bull World Health Organ, 46, 569-576.
63. Franco-Luiz AP, Oliveira DB, Pereira AF, et al (2016): Detection of vaccinia virus in dairy cattle serum samples from 2009, Uruguay. Emerg Infect Dis, 22, 2174-2177.
64. Frandsen J, Enslow M, Bowen AR (2011): Orf parapoxvirus infection from a cat scratch. Dermatol Online J, 17, 9.
65. Franke A, Kershaw O, Jenckel M, et al (2016): Fatal cowpox virus infection in an aborted foal. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis, 16, 431-433.
66. Gallina L, Veronese F, Farinelli P, et al (2016): Erythema multiforme after orf virus infection. Epidemiol Infect, 144, 88-89.
67. García-Arriaza J, Esteban M, López D (2021): Modified vaccinia virus Ankara as a viral vector for vaccine candidates against chikungunya virus. Biomedicines, 9, 1122.
68. Gazzani P, Gach JE, Colmenero I, et al (2017): Fatal disseminated cowpox virus infection in an adolescent renal transplant recipient. Pediatr Nephrol, 32, 533-536.
69. Gigante CM, Korber B, Seabolt MH, et al (2022): Multiple lineages of Monkeypox virus detected in the United States, 2021- 2022. bioRxiv preprint.
70. Ginzburg VE, Liauchonak I (2017): Human orf: Atypical rash in an urban medical practice. Can Fam Physician, 63, 769-771.
71. Gore Karaali M, Gurel MS, Sarı Y, et al (2022): Solitary Subungual Orf. J Hand Surg Am, 47, 194.e1-194.e3.
72. Gore Karaali M, Koku Aksu AE, Kara Polat A, et al (2021): Solitary facial lesion of orf: An unusual presentation. North Clin Istanb, 8, 626-628.
73. Grönemeyer LL, Baltzer A, Broekaert S, et al (2017): Generalised cowpox virus infection. Lancet, 390, 1769.
74. Haddadeen C, Van Ouwerkerk M, Vicek T, et al (2020): A case of cowpox virus infection in the UK occurring in a domestic cat and transmitted to the adult male owner. Br J Dermatol, 183, e190.
75. Hammerschlag Y, MacLeod G, Papadakis G, et al (2022): Monkeypox infection presenting as genital rash, Australia, May 2022. Euro Surveill, 27, 2200411.
76. Handler NS, Handler MZ, Rubins A, et al (2018): Milker's nodule: an occupational infection and threat to the immunocompromised. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol, 32, 537-541.
77. Happi C, Adetifa I, Mbala P, et al (2022): Urgent need for a non-discriminatory and non-stigmatizing nomenclature for monkeypox virus. PLoS Biol, 20, e3001769.
78. Hemmer CJ, Littmann M, Löbermann M, et al (2010): Human cowpox virus infection acquired from a circus elephant in Germany. Int J Infect Dis, 14, e338-340.
79. Hicks BD, Worthy GA (1987): Sealpox in captive grey seals (Halichoerus grypus) and their handlers. J Wildl Dis, 23, 1-6.
80. Holmes P, Richey M, McInnes C, et al (2011): Zoonotic transmission of bovine papular stomatitis virus. Vet Rec, 169, 235-236.
81. Horner GW, Robinson AJ, Hunter R, et al (1987): Parapoxvirus infections in New Zealand farmed red deer (Cervus elaphus). N Z Vet J, 35, 41-45.
82. Hosamani M, Scagliarini A, Bhanuprakash V, et al (2009): Orf: an update on current research and future perspectives. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther, 7, 879-893.
83. ICTV (2021): Virus Taxonomy: 2021 Release. Available at https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/ (Accessed June 24, 2022).
84. Inoshima Y, Nakane T, Sentsui H (2009): Severe dermatitis on cattle teats caused by bovine papular stomatitis virus. Vet Rec, 164, 311-312.
85. Isidro J, Borges V, Pinto M, et al (2022): Phylogenomic characterization and signs of microevolution in the 2022 multi-country outbreak of monkeypox virus. Nat Med.
86. Janseghers L, Matamba M, Colaert J, et al (1984): Fatal monkeypox in a child in Kikwit, Zaire. Ann Soc Belg Med Trop, 64, 295-298.
87. Jayasree P, Kaliyadan F, Abraham R (2020): Milker's Nodule. JAMA Dermatol, 156, 93.
88. Jeckel S, Bidewell C, Everest D, et al (2011): Severe oesophagitis in an adult bull caused by bovine papular stomatitis virus. Vet Rec, 169, 317.
89. Jolly B, Scaria V (2022): A distinct phylogenetic cluster of Monkeypox genomes suggests an early and cryptic spread of the virus. J Infect, S0163-4453(22)00476-5.
90. Joseph RH, Haddad FA, Matthews AL, et al (2015): Erythema multiforme after orf virus infection: a report of two cases and literature review. Epidemiol Infect, 143, 385-390.
91. Jungwirth N, Puff C, Köster K, et al (2018): Atypical cowpox virus infection in a series of cats. J Comp Pathol, 158, 71-76.
92. Kalthoff D, Bock WI, Hühn F, et al (2014): Fatal cowpox virus infection in cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) in Germany. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis, 14, 303-305.
93. Kato M, Kawashima D, Ito Y, et al (2021): Successful measures to prevent the spread of bovine papular stomatitis in a dairy farm. J Vet Med Sci, 83, 304-308.
94. Key SJ, Catania J, Mustafa SF, et al (2007): Unusual presentation of human giant orf (ecthyma contagiosum). J Craniofac Surg, 18, 1076-1078.
95. Kimball S (2022): Biden administration declares monkeypox outbreak a public health emergency in the U.S. Available at https://www.cnbc.com/2022/08/04/biden-administration-will-declare-monkeypox-outbreak-a-public-health-emergency-in-the-us.html (Accessed August 8, 2022).
96. Kitchen M, Müller H, Zobl A, et al (2014): ORF virus infection in a hunter in Western Austria, presumably transmitted by game. Acta Derm Venereol, 94, 212-214.
97. Knowles D (2011): Poxviridae. 151-165. In: NJ MacLachlan, EJ Dubovi (Eds), Fenner’s Veterinary Virology. Academic Press, San Diego.
98. Krankowska DC, Woźniak PA, Cybula A, et al (2021): Cowpox: How dangerous could it be for humans? Case report. Int J Infect Dis, 104, 239-241.
99. Kromer C, Bierschenk C, Czerny CP, et al (2018): Orf (ecthyma contagiosum) in a sheep and a shepherd. Lancet Infect Dis, 18, 122.
100. Ladnyj ID, Ziegler P, Kima E (1972): A human infection caused by monkeypox virus in Basankusu Territory, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Bull World Health Organ, 46, 593-597.
101. Laguardia-Nascimento M, de Oliveira AP, Fernandes FR, et al (2017): Detection of pseudocowpox virus in water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) with vesicular disease in the state of São Paulo, Brazil, in 2016. Vet Q, 37, 16-22.
102. Laiton-Donato K, Ávila-Robayo P, Páez-Martinez A, et al (2020): Progressive vaccinia acquired through zoonotic transmission in a patient with HIV/AIDS, Colombia. Emerg Infect Dis, 26, 601-605.
103. Lansiaux E, Jain N, Laivacuma S, et al (2022): The virology of human monkeypox virus (hMPXV): a brief overview. Available at https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/361245313_The_Virology_of_Human_Monkeypox_Virus_hMPXV_A_Brief_Overview (Accessed August 10, 2022).
104. Lapa D, Carletti F, Mazzotta V, et al (2022): Monkeypox virus isolation from a semen sample collected in the early phase of infection in a patient with prolonged seminal viral shedding. Lancet Infect Dis, 22, 1267-1269.
105. Lederman ER, Austin C, Trevino I, et al (2007): ORF virus infection in children: clinical characteristics, transmission, diagnostic methods, and future therapeutics. Pediatr Infect Dis J, 26, 740-744.
106. Leonard D, Otter A, Everest D, et al (2009): Unusual bovine papular stomatitis virus infection in a British dairy cow. Vet Rec, 164, 65.
107. Lewis A, Josiowicz A, Hirmas Riade SM, et al (2022): Introduction and differential diagnosis of monkeypox in Argentina, 2022. Emerg Infect Dis, 28.
108. Lewis MW, Graham MB, Hammarlund E, et al (2007): Monkeypox without exanthem. N Engl J Med, 356, 2112-2114.
109. Lima MT, Oliveira GP, Assis FL, et al (2018): Ocular vaccinia infection in dairy worker, Brazil. Emerg Infect Dis, 24, 161-162.
110. Lourie B, Bingham PG, Evans HH, et al (1972): Human infection with monkeypox virus: laboratory investigation of six cases in West Africa. Bull World Health Organ, 46, 633-639.
111. Lu B, Cui LB, Gu MH, et al (2019): Outbreak of vaccinia virus infection from occupational exposure, China, 2017. Emerg Infect Dis, 25, 1192-1195.
112. Luong Nguyen LB, Ghosn J, Durier C, et al (2022): A prospective national cohort evaluating ring MVA vaccination as post-exposure prophylaxis for monkeypox. Nat Med.
113. Ma W, Pang M, Lei X, et al (2022): Orf Virus Detection in the Saliva and Milk of Dairy Goats. Front Microbiol, 13, 837808.
114. Ma Y, Chen M, Bao Y, et al (2022): MPoxVR: A comprehensive genomic resource for monkeypox virus variant surveillance. Innovation (Camb), 3, 100296.
115. Maki J, Guiot AL, Aubert M, et al (2017): Oral vaccination of wildlife using a vaccinia-rabies-glycoprotein recombinant virus vaccine (RABORAL V-RG®): a global review. Vet Res, 48, 57.
116. Mandavilli A (2022): W.H.O. Declares Monkeypox Spread a Global Health Emergency. Available at https://www.nytimes.com/2022/07/23/health/monkeypox-pandemic-who.html (Accessed August 8, 2022).
117. Maor D, Yu LL, Brand R (2017): A case of orf disease in a patient with scleroderma. JAAD Case Rep, 3, 155-157.
118. Marckmann D, Frasnelli A (2020): Milker's nodule (Pseudocowpox) in a female patient following a calf bite. Dtsch Arztebl Int, 117, 870.
119. Marennikova SS, Maltseva NN, Korneeva VI, et al (1977): Outbreak of pox disease among carnivora (felidae) and edentata. J Infect Dis, 135, 358-366.
120. Marennikova SS, Seluhina EM, Mal'ceva NN, et al (1972): Poxviruses isolated from clinically ill and asymptomatically infected monkeys and a chimpanzee. Bull World Health Organ, 46, 613-620.
121. Martina BE, van Doornum G, Dorrestein GM, et al (2006): Cowpox virus transmission from rats to monkeys, the Netherlands. Emerg Infect Dis, 12, 1005-1007.
122. Marty AM (2022): Why is there expanding community transmission of monkeypox in 2022? Lancet Microbe, S2666-5247(22)00200-2.
123. Mbala PK, Huggins JW, Riu-Rovira T, et al (2017): Maternal and fetal outcomes among pregnant women with human monkeypox infection in the Democratic Republic of Congo. J Infect Dis, 216, 824-828.
124. McEvoy JD, Allan BC (1972): Isolation of bovine papular stomatitis virus from humans. Med J Aust, 1, 1254-1256.
125. Megid J, Borges IA, Abrahão JS, et al (2012): Vaccinia virus zoonotic infection, São Paulo State, Brazil. Emerg Infect Dis, 18, 189-191.
126. Micheloud JF, Aguirre LS, Sandoval GV, et al (2020): Detection and first molecular characterization of bovine papular stomatitis virus in dairy calves in Argentina. Trop Anim Health Prod, 52, 453-459.
127. Mileto D, Riva A, Cutrera M, et al (2022): New challenges in human monkeypox outside Africa: A review and case report from Italy. Travel Med Infect Dis, 49, 102386.
128. Miura F, van Ewijk CE, Backer JA, et al (2022): Estimated incubation period for monkeypox cases confirmed in the Netherlands, May 2022. Euro Surveill, 27, 2200448.
129. Morgan CN, Whitehill F, Doty JB, et al (2022): Environmental Persistence of Monkeypox Virus on Surfaces in Household of Person with Travel-Associated Infection, Dallas, Texas, USA, 2021. Emerg Infect Dis, 28.
130. Müller G, Gröters S, Siebert U, et al (2003): Parapoxvirus infection in harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) from the German North Sea. Vet Pathol, 40, 445-454.
131. Mutombo M, Arita I, Jezek Z (1983): Human monkeypox transmitted by a chimpanzee in a tropical rain-forest area of Zaire. Lancet, 1, 735-737.
132. Nicholas AH (1970): A poxvirus of primates. I. Growth of the virus in vitro and comparison with other poxviruses. J Natl Cancer Inst, 45, 897-905.
133. Ninove L, Domart Y, Vervel C, et al (2009): Cowpox virus transmission from pet rats to humans, France. Emerg Infect Dis, 15, 781-784.
134. Noe S, Zange S, Seilmaier M, et al (2022): Clinical and virological features of first human monkeypox cases in Germany. Infection, 1-6.
135. Nolen LD, Osadebe L, Katomba J, et al (2016): Extended Human-to-Human Transmission during a Monkeypox Outbreak in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Emerg Infect Dis, 22, 1014-1021.
136. Oem JK, Lee EY, Lee KK, et al (2013): Bovine papular stomatitis virus (BPSV) infections in Korean native cattle. J Vet Med Sci, 75, 675-678.
137. Ogoina D, Iroezindu M, James HI, et al (2020): Clinical Course and Outcome of Human Monkeypox in Nigeria. Clin Infect Dis, 71, e210-e214.
138. Oğuzoğlu TÇ, Koç BT, Kirdeci A, et al (2014): Evidence of zoonotic pseudocowpox virus infection from a cattle in Turkey. Virusdisease, 25, 381-384.
139. Ohtani A, Yokoyama A, Narushige H, et al (2017): First isolation and genetic characterization of pseudocowpox virus from cattle in Japan. Virol J, 14, 172.
140. Opene C, Fung MA, Silverstein M (2021): Orf progressiva: giant progressive and destructive infections in the immunocompromised. Dermatol Online J, 27, 13030/qt97d3k1pr.
141. Ouedraogo A, Luciani L, Zannou O, et al (2020): Detection of two species of the genus Parapoxvirus (bovine papular stomatitis virus and pseudocowpox virus) in ticks infesting cattle in Burkina Faso. Microorganisms, 8, 644.
142. Pahlitzsch R, Hammarin AL, Widell A (2006): A case of facial cellulitis and necrotizing lymphadenitis due to cowpox virus infection. Clin Infect Dis, 43, 737-742.
143. Patrocinio-Jesus R, Peruzzu F (2022): Monkeypox Genital Lesions. N Engl J Med, 387, 66.
144. Patrono LV, Pléh K, Samuni L, et al (2020): Monkeypox virus emergence in wild chimpanzees reveals distinct clinical outcomes and viral diversity. Nat Microbiol, 5, 955-965.
145. Peiró-Mestres A, Fuertes I, Camprubí-Ferrer D, et al (2022): Frequent detection of monkeypox virus DNA in saliva, semen, and other clinical samples from 12 patients, Barcelona, Spain, May to June 2022. Euro Surveill, 27, 2200503.
146. Pereira Oliveira G, Tavares Silva Fernandes A, Lopes de Assis F, et al (2014): Intrafamilial transmission of Vaccinia virus during a bovine Vaccinia outbreak in Brazil: a new insight in viral transmission chain. Am J Trop Med Hyg, 90, 1021-1023.
147. Peres MG, Bacchiega TS, Appolinário CM, et al (2018): Vaccinia virus in blood samples of humans, domestic and wild mammals in Brazil. Viruses, 10, 42.
148. Peres MG, Barros CB, Appolinário CM, et al (2016): Dogs and opossums positive for vaccinia virus during outbreak affecting cattle and humans, São Paulo State, Brazil. Emerg Infect Dis, 22, 271-273.
149. Perez JC, Lounnas V (2022): May 2022: Peculiar Evolution of the Monkeypox Virus Genomes. Available at https://www.researchgate.net/publication/361024980_May_2022_Peculiar_Evolution_of_the_Monkeypox_Virus_Genomes (Accessed August 10, 2022).
150. Petersen BW, Kabamba J, McCollum AM, et al (2019): Vaccinating against monkeypox in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Antiviral Res, 162, 171-177.
151. Phillips ZC, Holfeld KI, Lang AL, et al (2020): A case of milker's nodules in Saskatchewan, Canada. SAGE Open Med Case Rep, 8, 2050313X20984118.
152. Philpott D, Hughes CM, Alroy KA, et al (2022): Epidemiologic and Clinical Characteristics of Monkeypox Cases - United States, May 17-July 22, 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 71, 1018-1022.
153. Prier JE, Sauer RM (1960): A pox disease of monkeys. Ann N Y Acad Sci, 85, 951-959.
154. Radonić A, Metzger S, Dabrowski PW, et al (2014): Fatal monkeypox in wild-living sooty mangabey, Côte d'Ivoire, 2012. Emerg Infect Dis, 20, 1009-1011.
155. Rajkomar V, Hannah M, Coulson IH, et al (2016): A case of human to human transmission of orf between mother and child. Clin Exp Dermatol, 41, 60-63.
156. Rao AK, Schulte J, Chen TH, et al (2022): Monkeypox in a Traveler Returning from Nigeria - Dallas, Texas, July 2021. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 71, 509-516.
157. Reuters (2022): Turkey records first case of monkeypox - health minister. Available at https://www.reuters.com/ world/middle-east/turkey-records-first-case-monkeypox-health-minister-2022-06-30/ (Accessed July 25, 2022).
158. Reynolds MG, Yorita KL, Kuehnert MJ, et al (2006): Clinical manifestations of human monkeypox influenced by route of infection. J Infect Dis, 194, 773-80.
159. Riedel S (2005): Edward Jenner and the history of smallpox and vaccination. Proc (Bayl Univ Med Cent), 18, 21-25.
160. Rivetti AV Jr, Guedes MI, Rehfeld IS, et al (2013): Bovine vaccinia, a systemic infection: evidence of fecal shedding, viremia and detection in lymphoid organs. Vet Microbiol, 162, 103-111.
161. Roess AA, Levine RS, Barth L, et al (2011): Sealpox virus in marine mammal rehabilitation facilities, North America, 2007-2009. Emerg Infect Dis, 17, 2203-2208.
162. Saey TH, Garcia de Jesús EI (2022): Monkeypox is not a global health emergency for now, WHO says. Available at https://www.sciencenews.org/article/monkeypox-who-not-global-public-health-emergency (Accessed August 8, 2022).
163. Sasmaz S, Uzel M, Sener S, et al (2011): Rare presentation of human orf as multiple lesions. J Dermatol, 38, 825-826.
164. Schmiedeknecht G, Eickmann M, Köhler K, et al (2010): Fatal cowpox virus infection in captive banded mongooses (Mungos mungo). Vet Pathol, 47, 547-552.
165. Seang S, Burrel S, Todesco E, et al (2022): Evidence of human-to-dog transmission of monkeypox virus. Lancet, S0140-6736(22)01487-8.
166. Sebastian S, Gilbert SC (2016): Recombinant modified vaccinia virus Ankara-based malaria vaccines. Expert Rev Vaccines, 15, 91-103.
167. Şevik M (2019): Orf virus circulation in cattle in Turkey. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis, 65, 1-6.
168. Sharma A, Priyanka, Fahrni ML, et al (2022): Monkeypox outbreak: New zoonotic alert after the COVID-19 pandemic. Int J Surg, 6, 106812.
169. Shchelkunov SN, Totmenin AV, Babkin IV, et al (2001): Human monkeypox and smallpox viruses: genomic comparison. FEBS Lett, 509, 66-70.
170. Shimizu K, Badr Y, Okada A, et al (2020): Bovine papular stomatitis virus and pseudocowpox virus coinfection in dairy calves in Japan. Arch Virol, 165, 2659-2664.
171. Shimizu K, Takase H, Okada A, et al (2022): Possibility of mechanical transmission of parapoxvirus by houseflies (Musca domestica) on cattle and sheep farms. J Vet Med Sci, 2022 Jul 27.
172. Shivanna V, Cino-Ozuna AG, Heskett C, et al (2020): Pseudocowpox virus infection in an American bison (Bison bison). BMC Vet Res, 16, 241.
173. Silva-Fernandes AT, Travassos CE, Ferreira JM, et al (2009): Natural human infections with Vaccinia virus during bovine vaccinia outbreaks. J Clin Virol, 44, 308-313.
174. Simulundu E, Mtine N, Kapalamula TF, et al (2017): Genetic characterization of orf virus associated with an outbreak of severe orf in goats at a farm in Lusaka, Zambia (2015). Arch Virol, 162, 2363-2367.
175. Spinney L (2020): Smallpox and other viruses plagued humans much earlier than suspected. Nature, 584, 30-32.
176. Spyrou V, Valiakos G (2015): Orf virus infection in sheep or goats. Vet Microbiol, 181, 178-182.
177. Srivastava G, Srivastava G (2022): Human Monkeypox Disease. Clin Dermatol, S0738-081X(22)00113-4.
178. Stagegaard J, Kurth A, Stern D, et al (2017): Seasonal recurrence of cowpox virus outbreaks in captive cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus). PLoS One, 12, e0187089.
179. Stead JW, Henry CM, Simpson RH (1992): Rare case of autoinoculation of orf. Br J Gen Pract, 42, 395-396.
180. Sutter G, Staib C (2003): Vaccinia vectors as candidate vaccines: the development of modified vaccinia virus Ankara for antigen delivery. Curr Drug Targets Infect Disord, 3, 263-271.
181. Taieb A, Guillot M, Carlotti D, et al (1988): Orf and pregnancy. Int J Dermatol, 27, 31-33.
182. Talarek E, Marczynska M (2018): Cowpox Virus Infection. N Engl J Med, 378, 181.
183. Tamulyte G, Lauraitis J, Ganceviciene R, et al (2019): Cowpox virus infection in two brothers with possible human-to-human transmission. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol, 33, e8-e10.
184. Thornhill JP, Barkati S, Walmsley S, et al (2022): Monkeypox Virus Infection in Humans across 16 Countries - April-June 2022. N Engl J Med.
185. Tobler C, Ritter-Schenk C, Zimmermann P (2022): Orf Virus Infection: Ecthyma Contagiosum. J Pediatr, 243, 236-237.
186. TRT Haber (2022): Türkiye'de kaç maymun çiçeği vakası var? Bakan Koca açıkladı. Available at https://www.trthaber.com/haber/gundem/turkiyede-kac-maymun-cicegi-vakasi-var-bakan-koca-acikladi-698760.html (Accessed August 8, 2022).
187. Tryland M, Beckmen KB, Burek-Huntington KA, et al (2018): Orf virus infection in Alaskan mountain goats, Dall's sheep, muskoxen, caribou and Sitka black-tailed deer. Acta Vet Scand, 60, 12.
188. Tryland M, Klein J, Nordøy ES, et al (2005): Isolation and partial characterization of a parapoxvirus isolated from a skin lesion of a Weddell seal. Virus Res, 108, 83-87.
189. Turk BG, Senturk B, Dereli T, et al (2014): A rare human-to-human transmission of orf. Int J Dermatol, 53, e63-65.
190. Usme-Ciro JA, Paredes A, Walteros DM, et al (2017): Detection and molecular characterization of zoonotic poxviruses circulating in the Amazon region of Colombia, 2014. Emerg Infect Dis, 23, 649-653.
191. Vaughan A, Aarons E, Astbury J, et al (2018): Two cases of monkeypox imported to the United Kingdom, September 2018. Euro Surveill, 23, 1800509.
192. Vaughan A, Aarons E, Astbury J, et al (2020): Human-to-Human Transmission of Monkeypox Virus, United Kingdom, October 2018. Emerg Infect Dis, 26, 782-785.
193. Vellucci A, Manolas M, Jin S, et al (2020): Orf virus infection after Eid al-Adha. IDCases, 21, e00854.
194. Volz A, Sutter G (2017): Modified vaccinia virus Ankara: History, value in basic research, and current perspectives for vaccine development. Adv Virus Res, 97, 187-243.
195. von Magnus P, Andersen EK, Petersen KB, et al (1959): A pox-like disease in cynomolgus monkeys. Acta Pathol Microbiol Scand, 46,156–76.
196. Vusirikala A, Charles H, Balasegaram S, et al (2022): Epidemiology of Early Monkeypox Virus Transmission in Sexual Networks of Gay and Bisexual Men, England, 2022. Emerg Infect Dis, 28.
197. Wang L, Shang J, Weng S, et al (2022): Genomic annotation and molecular evolution of monkeypox virus outbreak in 2022. J Med Virol, 2022 Jul 29.
198. Wendt R, Tittelbach J, Schrick L, et al (2021): Generalized cowpox virus infection in an immunosuppressed patient. Int J Infect Dis, 106, 276-278.
199. Werchniak AE, Herfort OP, Farrell TJ, et al (2003): Milker's nodule in a healthy young woman. J Am Acad Dermatol, 49, 910-911.
200. WHO (2022): 2022 Monkeypox Outbreak: Global Trends. Available at https://worldhealthorg.shinyapps.io/mpx_ global/ (Accessed August 18, 2022).
201. WHO (2022): Disease Outbreak News; Monkeypox– United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Available at https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease-outbreak-news/item/2022-DON381 (Accessed June 24, 2022).
202. WHO (2022): Disease Outbreak News; Multi-country monkeypox outbreak in non-endemic countries: Update. Available at https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease-outbreak-news/item/2022-DON396 (Accessed June 24, 2022).
203. WHO (2022): Monkeypox. Available at https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ monkeypox (Accessed June 24, 2022).
204. WHO (2022): Weekly bulletin on outbreaks and other emergencies. Week 4: 17 – 23 January 2022. Available at https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/351164/OEW04-1723012022.pdf (Accessed June 24, 2022).
205. Wu K, de Menezes S, Robinson A (2021): Erythema multiforme induced by a "milker's nodule" pseudocowpox infection: a case report and review of literature. Case Rep Dermatol Med, 2021, 5584773.
206. Yinka-Ogunleye A, Aruna O, Dalhat M, et al (2019): Outbreak of human monkeypox in Nigeria in 2017-18: a clinical and epidemiological report. Lancet Infect Dis, 19, 872-879.
207. Żaba R, Jałowska M, Kowalczyk MJ, et al (2017): Cowpox virus infection in a child after contact with a domestic cat: a case report. New Microbiol, 40, 148-150.