The Effect of Cellulose Fibers Recovered from Primary Sludge on Concrete Performance

Year 2026, Volume: 15 Issue: 1 , 216 - 227 , 24.03.2026

Ayse Gul , Azize Yıldız , Yusuf Çağatay Erşan

https://doi.org/10.17798/bitlisfen.1794277

https://izlik.org/JA68CD92NS

Abstract

The construction industry faces urgent pressure to adopt sustainable, low-carbon materials. Fiber reinforced concrete appears as a more sustainable alternative to conventional concrete due to its improved mechanical properties and durability. Commonly tested synthetic fibers do not provide holistic economic and environmental benefits. Wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) are emerging as resource recovery hubs for biopolymers like cellulose, offering an eco-friendly alternative to synthetic fibers. However, the application of sewage-derived cellulose fibers in cementitious composites remains under-explored. This study evaluates the integration of cellulose fibers, extracted from primary sludge of a WWTP as an alternative to synthetic fibers in concrete applications. We incorporated recovered cellulose fibers at a 0.2% w/w into concrete (0.5% v/v) and evaluated the fresh and hardened properties of this fiber reinforced concrete. While fiber addition reduced workability due to high water absorption, it significantly improved mechanical performance. Compressive strength increased by 5% at 7 days and 6% at 28 days. These improvements are attributed to internal curing effects and enhanced fiber-matrix bonding. This research demonstrated a viable pathway for upcycling sewage-derived cellulose into sustainable construction materials within a circular economy framework.

Keywords

Primary sludge , Cellulose recovery , Sustainable materials , Alternative fibers

Ethical Statement

The study is complied with research and publication ethics

Supporting Institution

TÜBİTAK

Project Number

Tubitak 2209-A (2023 yılı 2. dönem kapsamında 1919B012326677 numaralı başvuru)

Thanks

TÜBİTAK's 2209-A University Students Research Projects Support Program supported this acquisition. We thank TUBITAK for its financial support and contributions throughout the research process.

References

• E. A. Khalil and M. N. AbouZeid, “Computation of the environmental performance of ready-mix concrete for reducing CO2 emissions: A case study in Egypt,” Energy Rep., vol. 9, pp. 144–148, 2023.
• E. Kravchenko and S. Besklubova, “Value stream assessment of the sustainable concrete recycling process with sequestration of CO2 from flue gases,” Sustain. Prod. Consum., vol. 46, pp. 282–293, 2024.
• J. Bubeník, J. Zach, K. Křížová, V. Novák, M. Sedlmajer, and N. Žižková, “Behavior and properties of ultra-lightweight concrete with foamed glass aggregate and cellulose fibres under high temperature loading,” J. Build. Eng., vol. 72, no. 106677, p. 106677, 2023.
• S. Palmieri et al., “Pilot scale cellulose recovery from sewage sludge and reuse in building and construction material,” Waste Manag., vol. 100, pp. 208–218, 2019.
• F. Bencardino, P. Mazzuca, R. do Carmo, H. Costa, and R. Curto, “Cement-based mortars with waste paper sludge-derived cellulose fibers for building applications,” Fibers (Basel), vol. 12, no. 2, p. 13, 2024.
• E. Cuenca, V. Postolachi, and L. Ferrara, “Cellulose nanofibers to improve the mechanical and durability performance of self-healing Ultra-High Performance Concretes exposed to aggressive waters,” Constr. Build. Mater., vol. 374, no. 130785, p. 130785, 2023.
• S. Ghorbanzadeh, M. Chamack, A. M. Mohammadi, and N. Zoghi, “Evaluation of the performance of concrete by adding silica nanoparticles and zeolite: A method deviation tolerance study,” Constr. Build. Mater., vol. 413, no. 134962, p. 134962, 2024.
• M. Atiq Orakzai, “Hybrid effect of nano-alumina and nano-titanium dioxide on Mechanical properties of concrete,” Case Stud. Constr. Mater., vol. 14, no. e00483, p. e00483, 2021.
• W.-C. Wang, “Compressive strength and thermal conductivity of concrete with nanoclay under Various High-Temperatures,” Constr. Build. Mater., vol. 147, pp. 305–311, 2017.
• J. Ahmad and Z. Zhou, “Properties of concrete with addition carbon nanotubes: A review,” Constr. Build. Mater., vol. 393, no. 132066, p. 132066, 2023.
• T. Chen, Z. Wang, A. Wang, E. Bai, and X. Zhu, “Comparative study on the static and dynamic mechanical properties and micro-mechanism of carbon fiber and carbon nanofiber reinforced concrete,” Case Stud. Constr. Mater., vol. 18, no. e01827, p. e01827, 2023.
• N. Gamage, Y. Patrisia, C. Gunasekara, D. W. Law, S. Houshyar, and S. Setunge, “Shrinkage induced crack control of concrete integrating synthetic textile and natural cellulosic fibres: Comparative review analysis,” Constr. Build. Mater., vol. 427, no. 136275, p. 136275, 2024.
• S. Cercatillo, M. Friedrich, B. Kromer, D. Paleček, and S. Talamo, “Exploring different methods of cellulose extraction for 14C dating,” New J Chem, vol. 45, no. 20, pp. 8936–8941, 2021.
• D. Djordjevićová et al., “Influence of cellulose on the anoxic treatment of domestic wastewater in septic tanks: Statistical analysis of the chemical and physico-chemical parameters,” Sustainability, vol. 15, no. 10, p. 7990, 2023.
• A. S. Norfarhana, R. A. Ilyas, N. Ngadi, and M. Hafiz Dzarfan Othman, “Optimization of ionic liquid pretreatment of sugar palm fiber for cellulose extraction,” J. Mol. Liq., vol. 398, no. 124256, p. 124256, 2024.
• W. Ma et al., “Mechanical properties and engineering application of cellulose fiber-reinforced concrete,” Mater. Today Commun., vol. 22, no. 100818, p. 100818, 2020.
• D. Barnat-Hunek, M. Szymańska-Chargot, M. Jarosz-Hadam, and G. Łagód, “Effect of cellulose nanofibrils and nanocrystals on physical properties of concrete,” Constr. Build. Mater., vol. 223, pp. 1–11, 2019.
• B. Dash, J. Prakash Giri, P. Markandeya Raju, and D. T. K. Dora, “Simultaneous influence of processed cellulose acetate fiber reinforcement and recycled aggregate replacement on mechanical and durability performances of concrete,” Constr. Build. Mater., vol. 401, no. 132950, p. 132950, 2023.
• M. A. Aziz, M. Zubair, and M. Saleem, “Development and testing of cellulose nanocrystal-based concrete,” Case Stud. Constr. Mater., vol. 15, no. e00761, p. e00761, 2021.
• “Verkenning naar mogelijkheden Voor Verwaarding Van zeefgoed, Rapport 07/2012, Foundation for Applied Water Research,” in Stowa 2012 STOWA report, 2012.
• K. Glińska, C. Lerigoleur, J. Giralt, E. Torrens, and C. Bengoa, “Valorization of cellulose recovered from WWTP sludge to added value levulinic acid with a Brønsted acidic ionic liquid,” Catalysts, vol. 10, no. 9, p. 1004, 2020.
• S. P. Espíndola, M. Pronk, J. Zlopasa, S. J. Picken, and M. C. M. van Loosdrecht, “Nanocellulose recovery from domestic wastewater,” J. Clean. Prod., vol. 280, no. 124507, p. 124507, 2021.
• R. Penki, S. K. Rout, and A. K. Das, “Number of aggregate sizes and aggregate gradation area: A correlational study,” in Recent Advances in Traffic Engineering, Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore, 2024, pp. 467–479.
• N. Banthia, F. Majdzadeh, J. Wu, and V. Bindiganavile, “Fiber synergy in Hybrid Fiber Reinforced Concrete (HyFRC) in flexure and direct shear,” Cem. Concr. Compos., vol. 48, pp. 91–97, 2014.
• H. Singh and R. Gupta, “Influence of cellulose fiber addition on self-healing and water permeability of concrete,” Case Stud. Constr. Mater., vol. 12, no. e00324, p. e00324, 2020.
• A. James et al., “Rebar corrosion detection, protection, and rehabilitation of reinforced concrete structures in coastal environments: A review,” Constr. Build. Mater., vol. 224, pp. 1026–1039, 2019.
• R. Siddique, “Performance characteristics of high-volume Class F fly ash concrete,” Cem. Concr. Res., vol. 34, no. 3, pp. 487–493, 2004.
• H. H. Kolour, “An investigation on the effects of cellulose nanofibrils on the performance of cement-based composites,” 2019. Retrieved from https://digitalcommons.library.umaine.edu/etd/3128
• C. J. Ruiken, G. Breuer, E. Klaversma, T. Santiago, and M. C. M. van Loosdrecht, “Sieving wastewater--cellulose recovery, economic and energy evaluation,” Water Res., vol. 47, no. 1, pp. 43–48, 2013.
• V. Hospodarova, N. Stevulova, J. Briancin, and K. Kostelanska, “Investigation of waste paper cellulosic fibers utilization into cement based building materials,” Buildings, vol. 8, no. 3, p. 43, 2018.
• O. Romruen, T. Karbowiak, W. Tongdeesoontorn, K. A. Shiekh, and S. Rawdkuen, “Extraction and characterization of cellulose from agricultural by-products of Chiang Rai province, Thailand,” Polymers (Basel), vol. 14, no. 9, p. 1830, 2022.
• S. M. A. S. Keshk and M. S. Hamdy, “Preparation and physicochemical characterization of zinc oxide/sodium cellulosecomposite for food packaging,” Turk. J. Chem., vol. 43, no. 1, pp. 94–105, 2019.
• N. B. R. Legrand, M. Lucien, O. Pierre, B. E. Fabien, N. P. Marcel, and A. A. Jean, “Physico-chemical and thermal characterization of a lignocellulosic fiber, extracted from the bast of cola lepidota stem,” J. Miner. Mater. Charact. Eng., vol. 08, no. 05, pp. 377–392, 2020.
• H. Zhang et al., “Facile cellulose dissolution and characterization in the newly synthesized 1,3-diallyl-2-ethylimidazolium acetate ionic liquid,” Polymers (Basel), vol. 9, no. 10, p. 526, 2017.
• H. Yang, R. Yan, H. Chen, D. H. Lee, and C. Zheng, “Characteristics of hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin pyrolysis,” Fuel (Lond.), vol. 86, no. 12–13, pp. 1781–1788, 2007.
• M. T. R. Bhuiyan, N. Hirai, and N. Sobue, “Changes of crystallinity in wood cellulose by heat treatment under dried and moist conditions,” J. Wood Sci., vol. 46, no. 6, pp. 431–436, 2000.
• C. Trilokesh and K. B. Uppuluri, “Isolation and characterization of cellulose nanocrystals from jackfruit peel,” Sci. Rep., vol. 9, no. 1, p. 16709, 2019.
• E. Çubuk Demi̇ralay, İ. Konçe, and Y. D. Daldal, “Merkezi Bir Kompozit Tasarım Kullanılarak Karboksimetil Selüloz Temelli Hidrojelin Şişme Oranının Belirlenmesi,” Süleyman demirel üniv. fen bilim. enst. derg., pp. 731–745, 2021.
• M. M. Nasery, E. Ağcakoca, and Z. Yaman, “Lif Katkılı Betonlarda Fiber Oranının Basınç Dayanımına Etkisinin Deneysel ve Nümerik İncelenmesi,” Bilecik Şeyh Edebali Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Dergisi, 2020.
• H. Jamshaid et al., “Natural cellulosic fiber reinforced concrete: Influence of fiber type and loading percentage on mechanical and water absorption performance,” Materials (Basel), vol. 15, no. 3, p. 874, 2022.
• D. Mazlan et al., “Effect of cellulose nanocrystals extracted from oil palm empty fruit bunch as green admixture for mortar,” Sci. Rep., vol. 10, no. 1, p. 6412, 2020.
• M. Muthu, “Impact of hydraulic loading on the removal of separate and mixed heavy metals in porous concrete,” Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int., vol. 32, no. 39, pp. 22686–22697, 2025.
• R. Malviya and R. Chaudhary, “Leaching behavior and immobilization of heavy metals in solidified/stabilized products,” J. Hazard. Mater., vol. 137, no. 1, pp. 207–217, 2006.
• K. Zhu, L. Wang, L. Liao, Y. Bai, and J. Hu, “Study on synthesis of CSH gel and its immobilization of heavy metals,” Crystals (Basel), vol. 14, no. 10, p. 864, 2024.
• Q. Y. Chen, M. Tyrer, C. D. Hills, X. M. Yang, and P. Carey, “Immobilisation of heavy metal in cement-based solidification/stabilisation: a review,” Waste Manag., vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 390–403, 2009.
• “Recovering cellulose from wastewater for reuse,” Salsnes Filter | Eco-Efficient Solids Separation, 10-Jan-2017. [Online]. Available: https://www.salsnes-filter.com/2017/01/10/recovering-cellulose-from-wastewater-for-reuse/. [Accessed: 24-Dec-2025].
• E. Wiśniowska and M. Kowalczyk, “Recovery of cellulose, extracellular polymeric substances and microplastics from sewage sludge: A review,” Energies, vol. 15, no. 20, p. 7744, 2022.
• K. Czyż and E. Małachowska, “Examination the possibility of using cellulosic sludge to obtain a composite with non-structural applications,” Annals of WULS - SGGW. Forestry and Wood Technology, vol. 129, pp. 73–81, 2025.