Investigation of The Effect of Earthquake Characteristics, Soil Properties And Damping on The Input Energy of Structures

Yusuf Turgut; Serkan Engin; Hasan Sesli

doi:10.17798/bitlisfen.1834019

Investigation of The Effect of Earthquake Characteristics, Soil Properties And Damping on The Input Energy of Structures

Abstract

This study investigates the combined influence of forward directivity (FD), site class, and damping ratio on the seismic input energy demand of linear single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) systems using an energy-balance framework. Four near-fault ground-motion sets with FD and non-forward directivity (NFD) were compiled for ZC and ZD soil classes, and elastic input energy spectra were computed for damping ratios of 2%, 5%, and 20%. Analysis of the earthquake records showed that increasing the damping ratio from 2% to 20% reduced the peak average input energy by approximately 35-40% for the selected records. The effect of forward directivity in the selected ground motion is that the average input energy increases by approximately 35-50% in the ZC soil class, while this increase is almost three times greater in the ZD soil class. Overall, increasing damping systematically reduces peak mean input energy, while FD effects markedly amplify energy demand, especially on soft soils. These findings underline that near-fault pulse-like characteristics and site conditions should be jointly considered when interpreting energy-based seismic demand.

Keywords

Ethical Statement

The study is complied with research and publication ethics.

Thanks

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

References

EN 1998-1, Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance – Part 1: General rules, seismic actions and rules for buildings. Brussels, Belgium: European Committee for Standardization, 2004.
FEMA 440, Improvement of Nonlinear Static Seismic Analysis Procedures: Guidelines. Washington, DC, USA: Federal Emergency Management Agency, 2005.
Republic of Turkey Ministry of Environment, Urbanization and Climate Change, Turkish Building Earthquake Code (TBEC 2018) [Online]. Available: https://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2018/03/20180318M1-2.htm
M. J. Kowalsky, G. A. MacRae, and M. J. N. Priestley, “Displacement-Based Methodology for Seismic Design Applied to Single Degree of Freedom Reinforced Concrete Structures,” Report No. SSRP-94/16. La Jolla, CA, USA: University of California, San Diego, 1994.
Z. Celep, Deprem Mühendisliğine Giriş ve Depreme Dayanıklı Yapı Tasarımı, 2nd ed., İstanbul, Türkiye. Press Mar. 2022.
A. A. Dindar, A. Bozer, H. Özkaynak, Z. Müderrisoğlu and A. Güllü, “Effect of Soil Condition on the Energy Distribution of Mid-Rise RC Buildings,” in Energy-Based Seismic Engineering, Cham, Switzerland, vol. 692, pp. 266–273, Jun. 2025, doi: 10.1007/978-3-031-97129-7_21.
F. Çalım, A. Güllü and E. Yüksel, “Predicting Displacement Demands in SDOF Systems Using Seismic Input Energy: A Machine Learning Approach,” in 4th International Civil Engineering & Architecture Conference, Trabzon, Türkiye, vol. 1, pp. 505-513, May. 2025, doi: 10.31462/icearc2025_ce_eqe_744
Z. Müderrisoğlu, A.A. Dindar, A. Bozer, H. Özkaynak, A. Güllü, F. Çalım and S. Hasanoğlu, “A Quantitative Investigation on the Effects of Flexure-Dominated Reinforced Concrete Column Characteristics on the Dissipated Energy,” Turkish Journal of Civil Engineering, vol. 35, no. 2, pp. 87-102, Mar. 2024, doi: 10.18400/tjce.1272125

A. Güllü, E. Yüksel, C. Yalçın, A.A. Dindar, H. Özkaynak and O. Büyüköztürk, “An Improved Input Energy Spectrum Verified by the Shake Table Tests,” Earthquake Engineering & Structural Dynamics, vol. 48, no. 1, pp. 27-45, Sep. 2018, doi: 10.1002/eqe.3121
O. Merter and T. Uçar, “İdeal Göçme Mekanizması İçin Enerji Esaslı Yapı Taban Kesme Kuvvetinin Belirlenmesi,” Dicle Üniversitesi Mühendislik Fakültesi Mühendislik Dergisi, vol. 3, no. 7, pp. 409–420, 2016.
G. W. Housner, “Limit Design of Structures to Resist Earthquakes,” in Proc. 1st World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, vol. 5, pp. 5–13, 1956.
İ. Ö. Dedeoğlu and Y. Calayır, “Yapı Sistemine Giren Enerji Bakımından TBDY (2018) ve DBYBHY (2007) Üzerine Bir İnceleme,” Dicle Üniversitesi Mühendislik Fakültesi Mühendislik Dergisi, Mar. 2021, doi: 10.24012/dumf.851068.
C. Uang and V. V. Bertero, “Evaluation of Seismic Energy in Structures,” Earthquake Engineering & Structural Dynamics, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 77–90, Jan. 1990, doi: 10.1002/eqe.4290190108.
A. Benavent-Climent, L. G. Pujades, and F. López-Almansa, “An Energy-Based Methodology for the Assessment of Seismic Demand,” Earthquake Engineering & Structural Dynamics, vol. 33, no. 10, pp. 1123–1145, 2004, doi: 10.1002/eqe.429
R. K. Goel, “Seismic Response of Asymmetric Systems: Energy-based Approach,” Journal of Structural Engineering, vol. 123, no. 11, pp. 1444–1453, Nov. 1997, doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(1997)123:11(1444)
M. Hosseini and M. A. Vaseghinia, “A New Insight to the Earthquake Input Energy and Its Variation with Building's Dynamical Characteristics,” Proceedings of the 14th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Beijing, China, Oct. 2008.
A. A. Dindar, C. Yalçın, E. Yüksel, H. Özkaynak, and O. Büyüköztürk, “Development of Earthquake Energy Demand Spectra,” Earthquake Spectra, vol. 31, no. 3, pp. 1667–1689, Dec. 2012, doi: 10.1193/011212eqs010m.
A. A. Dindar, C. Yalçın, E. Yüksel, H. Özkaynak, and O. Büyüköztürk, “Development of Earthquake Energy Demand Spectra,” Earthquake Spectra, vol. 31, no. 3, pp. 1667–1689, Aug. 2015, doi: 10.1193/011212EQS010M
C. Yalçın, A.A. Dindar, E. Yüksel, H. Özkaynak and O. Büyüköztürk “Seismic Design of RC Frame Structures Based on Energy-Balance Method,” Engineering Structures, vol. 237, Jun. 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.engstruct.2021.112220
B. Akbaş, J. Shen, and H. Hao, “Energy Approach in Performance‐Based Seismic Design of Steel Moment Resisting Frames for Basic Safety Objective,” The Structural Design of Tall Buildings, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 193–217, Jul. 2001, doi: 10.1002/tal.172.
P. Khashaee, “Distribution of Earthquake Input Energy in Structures,” National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Jan. 2003. [Online]. Available: https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/IR/nistir6903
A. Güllü, E. Yuksel, C. Yalçın, and O. Büyüköztürk, “Damping Effect on Seismic Input Energy and Its Verification by Shake Table Tests,” Advances in Structural Engineering, vol. 24, no. 12, pp. 2669–2683, Apr. 2021, doi: 10.1177/13694332211010584.
M. Neaz Sheikh, H.-H. Tsang, S. Yaghmaei-Sabegh, and P. Anbazhagan, “Evaluation of Damping Modification Factors for Seismic Response Spectra,” in Australian Earthquake Engineering Society Conference, Hobart, Tasmania, Nov. 2013.
M. Çelebi, “Preliminary Study of Correlation of Natural Periods and Damping Percentages of Tall Buildings in Several Countries,” in 11th U.S. National Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Los Angeles, California, United States, Jun. 2018.
C. Zhai, D. Ji, W. Wen, W. Lei, and L. Xie, “Constant Ductility Energy Factors for the Near-Fault Pulse-Like Ground Motions,” Journal of Earthquake Engineering, vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 343–358, Apr. 2016, doi: 10.1080/13632469.2016.1157529.
B. Akbaş, Ü.M. Tuğsal, and F.İ. Kara, “An Evaluation of Energy Response and Cumulative Plastic Rotation Demand in Steel Moment‐Resisting Frames Through Dynamic/Static Pushover Analyses,” The Structural Design of Tall and Special Buildings, vol. 18, no. 4, pp. 405–426, Jun. 2008, doi: 10.1002/tal.442.
A. Okur and M.A. Erberik, “Adaptation of Energy Principles in Seismic Design of Turkish RC Frame Structures. Part I: Input Energy Spectrum,” in Proceedings of the 15th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Lisbon, Portugal, Sept. 2012.
A. Okur and M.A. Erberik, “Adaptation of Energy Principles in Seismic Design of Turkish RC Frame Structures. Part II: Distribution of Hysteretic Energy,” in Proceedings of the Second European Conference on Earthquake Engineering and Seismology, Istanbul, Türkiye, Aug. 2014.
H. Sucuoğlu and F.S. Alıcı, “Elastic and Inelastic Near Fault Input Energy Spectra,” Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Computational Methods in Structural Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering (COMPDYN), vol. 2, pp. 2196–2211, Jan. 2019, doi: 10.7712/120119.7070.18377.
H. Zhang, Y.-G. Zhao, F.-W. Ge, Y. Fang, and T. Ochiai, “Estimation of Input Energy Spectrum from Pseudo-Velocity Response Spectrum Incorporating the Influences of Magnitude, Distance, and Site Conditions,” Engineering Structures, vol. 274, Oct. 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.engstruct.2022.115165.
S. Hasanoğlu, A. Güllü, A. A. Dindar, Z. Müderrisoğlu, H. Özkaynak, and A. Bozer, “Optimal Selection and Scaling of Ground Motion Records Compatible with Input Energy and Acceleration Spectra,” Earthquake Engineering & Structural Dynamics, vol. 53, no. 7, pp. 2382–2404, Mar. 2024, doi: 10.1002/eqe.4114.
P. Somerville, N. Smith, S. Punyamurthula and J. Sun, “Development of Ground Motion Time Histories for Phase 2 of the FEMA/SAC Steel Project,” Sacramento, USA, Jan. 1997.
T. Uçar and O. Merter, “Ductility demands for stiffness-degrading SDOF systems under pulse-like ground motions of the 2023 Pazarcık (Kahramanmaraş) earthquake,” Bullet of Earthquake Engineering, vol. 22, no. 6, pp. 3243-3260, Mar. 2024, doi: 10.1007/s10518-024-01882-4.
J.W. Baker, “Quantitative Classification of Near-Fault Ground Motions Using Wavelet Analysis,” Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, vol. 97, no. 5, pp. 1486-1501, Oct. 2007, doi: 10.1785/0120060255
A. Bigdeli, H. Akbari, M. Alembagheri, H. Haghgou, and M. Matinfar, “Influence of Near-Field Ground Motions and Their Equivalent Pulses on Nonlinear Seismic Response of Intake-Outlet Towers and Predicting Based on Artificial Neural Networks,” Structures, vol. 52, pp. 1051–1070, Apr. 2023, doi: 10.1016/j.istruc.2023.04.019.
C.M. Uang and V.V. Bertero, “Evaluation of Seismic Energy in Structures,” Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 77-90, Jan. 1990, doi: 10.1002/eqe.4290190108
E. Şafak, “Local Site Effects and Dynamic Soil Behavior,” Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, vol. 21, no. 5, pp. 453-458, Jul. 2001, doi: 10.1016/j.istruc.2023.04.019
A.K. Chopra, Dynamics of Structures: Theory and Applications to Earthquake Engineering, 3rd ed., Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA. Press 1995.
MathWorks, MATLAB R2024b, Natick, MA, USA: The MathWorks, Inc., 2024.
T. D. Ancheta, R. B. Darragh, J. P. Stewart, E. Seyhan, W. J. Silva, B. S. J. Chiou, K. E. Wooddell, R. W. Graves, A. R. Kottke, D. M. Boore, T. Kishida, and J. L. Donahue, PEER NGA-West2 Database, PEER Report No. 2013/03, Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center, University of California, Berkeley, 2013. [Online]. Available: https://ngawest2.berkeley.edu/
SeismoSelect (2025), Seismosoft Earthquake Engineering Software Solutions.

Details

Primary Language

English

Subjects

Earthquake Engineering

Journal Section

Research Article

Authors

Yusuf Turgut
0009-0002-1073-1053
Türkiye

Serkan Engin ^*
0000-0001-9214-237X
Türkiye

Hasan Sesli
0000-0003-3328-5922
Türkiye

Publication Date

June 30, 2026

Submission Date

December 1, 2025

Acceptance Date

April 9, 2026

Published in Issue

Year 2026 Volume: 15 Number: 2

DOI

https://doi.org/10.17798/bitlisfen.1834019

IZ

https://izlik.org/JA57RD77YB

Cite

RIS / Bibtex

APA

Turgut, Y., Engin, S., & Sesli, H. (2026). Investigation of The Effect of Earthquake Characteristics, Soil Properties And Damping on The Input Energy of Structures. Bitlis Eren Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Dergisi, 15(2), 750-766. https://doi.org/10.17798/bitlisfen.1834019

AMA

1.Turgut Y, Engin S, Sesli H. Investigation of The Effect of Earthquake Characteristics, Soil Properties And Damping on The Input Energy of Structures. Bitlis Eren Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Dergisi. 2026;15(2):750-766. doi:10.17798/bitlisfen.1834019

Chicago

Turgut, Yusuf, Serkan Engin, and Hasan Sesli. 2026. “Investigation of The Effect of Earthquake Characteristics, Soil Properties And Damping on The Input Energy of Structures”. Bitlis Eren Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Dergisi 15 (2): 750-66. https://doi.org/10.17798/bitlisfen.1834019.

EndNote

Turgut Y, Engin S, Sesli H (June 1, 2026) Investigation of The Effect of Earthquake Characteristics, Soil Properties And Damping on The Input Energy of Structures. Bitlis Eren Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Dergisi 15 2 750–766.

IEEE

[1]Y. Turgut, S. Engin, and H. Sesli, “Investigation of The Effect of Earthquake Characteristics, Soil Properties And Damping on The Input Energy of Structures”, Bitlis Eren Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Dergisi, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 750–766, June 2026, doi: 10.17798/bitlisfen.1834019.

ISNAD

Turgut, Yusuf - Engin, Serkan - Sesli, Hasan. “Investigation of The Effect of Earthquake Characteristics, Soil Properties And Damping on The Input Energy of Structures”. Bitlis Eren Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Dergisi 15/2 (June 1, 2026): 750-766. https://doi.org/10.17798/bitlisfen.1834019.

JAMA

1.Turgut Y, Engin S, Sesli H. Investigation of The Effect of Earthquake Characteristics, Soil Properties And Damping on The Input Energy of Structures. Bitlis Eren Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Dergisi. 2026;15:750–766.

MLA

Turgut, Yusuf, et al. “Investigation of The Effect of Earthquake Characteristics, Soil Properties And Damping on The Input Energy of Structures”. Bitlis Eren Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Dergisi, vol. 15, no. 2, June 2026, pp. 750-66, doi:10.17798/bitlisfen.1834019.

Vancouver

1.Yusuf Turgut, Serkan Engin, Hasan Sesli. Investigation of The Effect of Earthquake Characteristics, Soil Properties And Damping on The Input Energy of Structures. Bitlis Eren Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Dergisi. 2026 Jun. 1;15(2):750-66. doi:10.17798/bitlisfen.1834019