Comparison of UV-Photocatalytic and Intrinsic Antifungal Activity of TiO₂ Nanoparticles aganist Candida tropicalis

Year 2026, Volume: 15 Issue: 1 , 506 - 514 , 24.03.2026

Pınar Küce Çevik

https://doi.org/10.17798/bitlisfen.1863965

https://izlik.org/JA74FM53NY

Abstract

This study aimed to evaluate the antifungal activity of titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO₂ NP) against Candida tropicalis ATCC 750 strain under both dark and UV light activation conditions. For this purpose, anatase phase TiO₂ nanoparticles were applied to C. tropicalis suspensions at four different concentrations (125, 250, 500, and 1000 µg/mL) and for four different durations (15, 30, 45, and 60 min). The experiments were conducted under two conditions: dark environment and UVA (365 nm- 15 cm distance) activation. Antifungal activity was determined by colony counting at the end of the exposure periods. Log reduction and percentage reduction were calculated. The UV+TiO₂ combination exhibited significantly higher antifungal activity compared to the dark condition. With UV activation, complete elimination (100% mortality, >2.48 log reduction) was observed at 45 minutes at a TiO₂ concentration of 1000 µg/mL and at 60 minutes at a concentration of 500 µg/mL. Under dark conditions, a maximum reduction of 0.84 log (85.7% reduction) was observed at 1000 µg/mL after 60 minutes; complete elimination was not observed at any concentration. Only 0.27 log reduction (46.7% reduction) was achieved after 60 minutes in the group treated with UV alone. Photocatalytic activity was found to be approximately 9 times stronger than the effect of UV alone. This study provides valuable evidence that UV-activated TiO₂ nanoparticles exhibit potent photocatalytic antifungal activity against C. tropicalis, with the potential to achieve complete elimination at high concentrations. The results obtained demonstrate that TiO₂ NPs have the potential to serve as an alternative antifungal strategy in the treatment of C. tropicalis infections, where resistance is becoming an increasingly significant problem.

Keywords

Titanium dioxide nanoparticle , Candida tropicalis , photocatalytic activity , antifungal , Log reduction

Ethical Statement

The study is complied with research and publication ethics.

References

• N. S. Ahmad, N. Abdullah, and F. M. Yasin, "Antifungal activity of titanium dioxide nanoparticles against Candida albicans," BioResources, vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 8866–8878, 2019.
• M. R. Amiri, M. Alavi, M. Taran, and D. Kahrizi, "Antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, and photocatalytic activities of TiO2 nanoparticles, nanocomposites, and bio-nanocomposites: Recent advances and challenges," Journal of Public Health Research, vol. 11, no. 2, 22799036221104151, 2022.
• N. M. Alabdallah, M. A. Irshad, M. Rizwan, R. Nawaz, A. Inam, M. Mohsin, and S. Ali, "Synthesis, characterization and antifungal potential of titanium dioxide nanoparticles against fungal disease (Ustilago tritici) of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)," Environmental Research, vol. 228, 115852, 2023.
• B. Nowack and T. D. Bucheli, "The occurrence, behavior, and effects of engineered nanomaterials in the environment," in Advances in Nanotechnology and the Environment. Pan Stanford Publishing, 2011, pp. 183–217.
• X. Wei, Z. Yang, S. L. Tay, and W. Gao, "Photocatalytic TiO2 nanoparticles enhanced polymer antimicrobial coating," Applied Surface Science, vol. 290, pp. 274–279, 2014.
• S. H. Othman, N. R. Abd Salam, N. Zainal, R. Kadir Basha, and R. A. Talib, "Antimicrobial activity of TiO2 nanoparticle‐coated film for potential food packaging applications," International Journal of Photoenergy, vol. 2014, no. 1, 945930, 2014.
• S. T. Khan, A. A. Al-Khedhairy, and J. Musarrat, "ZnO and TiO2 nanoparticles as novel antimicrobial agents for oral hygiene: a review," Journal of Nanoparticle Research, vol. 17, no. 6, 276, 2015.
• S. Ahmadpour Kermani, S. Salari, and P. Ghasemi Nejad Almani, "Comparison of antifungal and cytotoxicity activities of titanium dioxide and zinc oxide nanoparticles with amphotericin B against different Candida species: In vitro evaluation," Journal of Clinical Laboratory Analysis, vol. 35, no. 1, e23577, 2021.
• M. Schutte-Smith, E. Erasmus, R. Mogale, N. Marogoa, A. Jayiya, and H. G. Visser, "Using visible light to activate antiviral and antimicrobial properties of TiO2 nanoparticles in paints and coatings: Focus on new developments for frequent-touch surfaces in hospitals," Journal of Coatings Technology and Research, vol. 20, no. 3, pp. 789–817, 2023.
• C. Rathore et al., "Microbial synthesis of titanium dioxide nanoparticles and their importance in wastewater treatment and antimicrobial activities: a review," Frontiers in Microbiology, vol. 14, 1270245, 2023.
• F. Bongomin, S. Gago, R. O. Oladele, and D. W. Denning, "Global and multi-national prevalence of fungal diseases-estimate precision," Journal of Fungi, vol. 3, no. 4, 57, 2017.
• R. Ben-Ami and D. P. Kontoyiannis, "Resistance to antifungal drugs," Infectious Disease Clinics, vol. 35, no. 2, pp. 279–311, 2021.
• N. van Rhijn and J. Rhodes, "Evolution of antifungal resistance in the environment," Nature Microbiology, vol. 10, no. 8, pp. 1804–1815, 2025.
• R. S. Liao, R. P. Rennie, and J. A. Talbot, "Sublethal injury and resuscitation of Candida albicans after amphotericin B treatment," Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, vol. 47, no. 4, pp. 1200–1206, 2003.
• T. A. De Vries and M. A. Hamilton, "Estimating the antimicrobial log reduction: Part 1. Quantitative assays," Quantitative Microbiology, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 29–45, 1999.
• J. Guinea, "Global trends in the distribution of Candida species causing candidemia," Clinical Microbiology and Infection, vol. 20, pp. 5–10, 2014.
• M. M. Dos Santos and K. Ishida, "We need to talk about Candida tropicalis: Virulence factors and survival mechanisms," Medical Mycology, vol. 61, no. 8, myad075, 2023.
• H. Xiong, R. Zhao, S. Han, Z. Liu, X. Zhang, Z. Jia, J. Cui, Y. Zhang, and X. Wang, "Research progress on the drug resistance mechanisms of Candida tropicalis and future solutions," Frontiers in Microbiology, vol. 16, 1594226, 2025.
• H. A. Foster, I. B. Ditta, S. Varghese, and A. Steele, "Photocatalytic disinfection using titanium dioxide: spectrum and mechanism of antimicrobial activity," Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, vol. 90, no. 6, pp. 1847–1868, 2011.
• T. Luttrell, S. Halpegamage, J. Tao, A. Kramer, E. Sutter, and M. Batzill, "Why is anatase a better photocatalyst than rutile?-Model studies on epitaxial TiO2 films," Scientific Reports, vol. 4, no. 1, 4043, 2014.
• M. N. Chong, B. Jin, C. W. Chow, and C. Saint, "Recent developments in photocatalytic water treatment technology: a review," Water Research, vol. 44, no. 10, pp. 2997–3027, 2010.
• P. C. Maness, S. Smolinski, D. M. Blake, Z. Huang, E. J. Wolfrum, and W. A. Jacoby, "Bactericidal activity of photocatalytic TiO2 reaction: toward an understanding of its killing mechanism," Applied and Environmental Microbiology, vol. 65, no. 9, pp. 4094–4098, 1999.
• V. A. Nadtochenko, A. G. Rincon, S. E. Stanca, and J. Kiwi, "Dynamics of E. coli membrane cell peroxidation during TiO2 photocatalysis studied by ATR-FTIR spectroscopy and AFM microscopy," Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology A: Chemistry, vol. 169, no. 2, pp. 131–137, 2005.
• İ. Yaşa, N. Lkhagvajav, M. Koizhaiganova, E. Çelik, and Ö. Sarı, "Assessment of antimicrobial activity of nanosized Ag doped TiO2 colloids," World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology, vol. 28, no. 7, pp. 2531–2539, 2012.
• K. Kowal et al., "In situ photoexcitation of silver-doped titania nanopowders for activity against bacteria and yeasts," Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, vol. 416, pp. 219–228, 2014.
• E. T. Helmy, E. M. Abouellef, U. A. Soliman, and J. H. Pan, "Novel green synthesis of S-doped TiO2 nanoparticles using Malva parviflora plant extract and their photocatalytic, antimicrobial and antioxidant activities under sunlight illumination," Chemosphere, vol. 271, 129524, 2021.
• R. Lozano-Rosas, J. J. Ruíz-Osorio, R. Ramos-García, R. Silva-González, T. Spezzia-Mazzocco, and M. J. Robles-Águila, "Photoexcitation of Ag-doped TiO2 nanoparticles with visible light for antimicrobial photodynamic therapy against Candida albicans," Journal of Nanoparticle Research, vol. 27, no. 9, 236, 2025.
• S. Thabet, M. Weiss-Gayet, F. Dappozze, P. Cotton, and C. Guillard, "Photocatalysis on yeast cells: toward targets and mechanisms," Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, vol. 140, pp. 169–178, 2013.
• A. Lipovsky, Y. Nitzan, A. Gedanken, and R. Lubart, "Antifungal activity of ZnO nanoparticles—the role of ROS mediated cell injury," Nanotechnology, vol. 22, no. 10, 105101, 2011.
• M. E. Gómez-Hernández, S. L. Baltierra-Uribe, J. Castillo-Cruz, R. Mondragón-Flores, S. González-Pozos, M. A. Vidales-Hurtado, and B. E. García-Pérez, "Antifungal effect of titanium oxide nanoparticles on Candida glabrata internalized in human macrophages," Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology, vol. 15, 1714083, 2025.
• K. Liu, X. Lin, and J. Zhao, Toxic effects of the interaction of titanium dioxide nanoparticles with chemicals or physical factors, International Journal of Nanomedicine, pp. 2509–2520, 2013.