Are soilless agriculture technologies a sustainable solution for the future?

Abstract

It is stated that the unconscious use of chemicals in traditional agriculture causes changes in soil structure and negatively affects soil fertility. It is also emphasized that precautions must be taken to meet food demands due to increasing world population. Recently, soilless agriculture research as an alternative solution has been increasing due to its advantages such as saving labor, time and water, reducing use of herbicides/pesticides, and eliminating microbiological problems. However, attempts are being made to reduce high costs that are a disadvantage. In some countries, there are centers where vertical farming practices are carried out to support urban agriculture. Lately, topics such as growing plants in space and space farms regarding vertical farming applications are also popular. There are products that have been successful in projects carried out by NASA. It is aimed to take studies further with advantages of technology by examining damages that may occur due to the effect of microgravity. Moreover, in the field of gastronomy, soilless/vertical agriculture has recently come to the fore in terms of sustainability. It is seen that restaurants where small-scale production is carried out by applying these techniques come to the fore. In this review, these issues will be examined in detail.

Keywords

• Aeroponics
• aquaponics
• gastronomy
• hydroponics
• space farming
• vertical farming

Topraksız tarım teknolojileri gelecek için sürdürülebilir bir çözüm mü?

Abstract

Geleneksel tarımda bilinçsiz kimyasal kullanımının toprak yapısında değişikliklere yol açarak, toprak verimliliğini olumsuz yönde etkilediği belirtilmektedir. Ayrıca gittikçe artan dünya nüfusu nedeniyle gıda taleplerinin karşılanması için önlemlerin alınması gerekliliği de vurgulanmaktadır. Son yıllarda, alternatif bir çözüm olarak topraksız tarım araştırmaları; iş gücü, zaman, su tasarrufu sağlanması, herbisit/pestisit kullanımının azalması, mikrobiyolojik sıkıntıların ortadan kalkması gibi avantajları olduğu için artmaktadır. Öte yandan, dezavantaj olarak yüksek maliyetlerin düşürülmesi için de girişimlerde bulunulmaktadır. Bazı ülkelerde kentsel tarımın desteklenmesi amacıyla dikey tarım uygulamalarının yapıldığı merkezler bulunmaktadır. Son dönemlerde dikey tarım uygulamaları ile ilgili olarak uzayda bitki yetiştirilmesi, uzay çiftlikleri gibi başlıklar da popülerdir. NASA’nın yürüttüğü projelerde başarıya ulaşılmış olan ürünler bulunmaktadır. Mikro yerçekimi etkisi ile oluşabilecek hasarlar incelenerek, çalışmaların teknolojinin avantajlarıyla daha da ileri götürülmesi amaçlanmaktadır. Ayrıca, gastronomi alanında da topraksız/dikey tarım sürdürülebilirlik açısından son zamanlarda ön plana çıkmaktadır. Bu tekniklerin uygulanarak küçük ölçekli üretimlerin yapıldığı restoranların ön plana çıktığı görülmektedir. Bu derlemede bu konular detaylı olarak irdelenecektir.

Keywords

• Aeroponik
• akuaponik
• dikey tarım
• gastronomi
• hidroponik
• uzay tarımı

References

1. Agrotonomy, (2023). Agrotonomy, https://agrotonomy.com/vertical-farming-with-tower-farms-in-restaurants/, (Erişim tarihi: 28.11.2023).
2. Al-Chalabi, M. (2015). Vertical farming: Skyscraper sustainability? Sustainable Cities and Society, 18, 74-77.
3. Al-Kodmany, K. (2018). The vertical farm: A review of developments and implications for the vertical city. Buildings, 8(2), 24.
4. Arumugam, T., Sandeep, G., & Maheswari, M. U. (2021). Soilless farming of vegetable crops: An overview. Pharma Innov. J, 10(1), 773-785.
5. Aune, J. B. (2012). Conventional, organic and conservation agriculture: production and environmental impact. Agroecology and strategies for climate change, 149-165.
6. Bahri, I., Selek, M., & Berber, S. (2020). Akuaponik Sistemde Nil Tilapia (Oreochromis Niloticus) ve Nane (Mentha Piperita) Yetiştiriciliği. Menba Kastamonu Üniversitesi Su Ürünleri Fakültesi Dergisi, 6(1), 30-36.
7. Baldi, A., Bruschi, P., Campeggi, S., Egea, T., Rivera, D., Obón, C., & Lenzi, A. (2022). The renaissance of wild food plants: Insights from Tuscany (Italy). Foods, 11(3), 300.
8. Balogun, M., Maroya, N., & Asiedu, R. (2014). Seed yam production in an aeroponics system: a novel technology. International Institute of Tropical Agriculture.

9. Banerjee, C., & Adenaeuer, L. (2014). Up, up and away! The economics of vertical farming. Journal of Agricultural Studies, 2(1), 40-60.
10. Barker, B. (1922). Studies on root development. Long Ashton Research Station Annual Report, 1921, 9-57. Beacham, A. M., Vickers, L. H., & Monaghan, J. M. (2019). Vertical farming: a summary of approaches to growing skywards. The Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology, 94(3), 277-283.
11. Bihari, C., Ahamad, S., Kumar, M., Kumar, A., Kamboj, A. D., Singh, S., ... & Gautam, P. (2023). Innovative Soilless Culture Techniques for Horticultural Crops: A Comprehensive Review. International Journal of Environment and Climate Change, 13(10), 4071-4084.
12. Bingol, B. (2019). Alternatif tarım yöntemleri; Aeroponik, Akuaponik, Hidroponik. Harman Time Dergisi, 7(82), 34-42.
13. Birkby, J. (2016). Vertical farming. ATTRA Sustainable Agriculture, 2, 1-12.
14. Burgner, S. E., Nemali, K., Massa, G. D., Wheeler, R. M., Morrow, R. C., & Mitchell, C. A. (2020). Growth and photosynthetic responses of Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa L. cv. Tokyo Bekana) to continuously elevated carbon dioxide in a simulated Space Station “Veggie” crop-production environment. Life Sciences in Space Research, 27, 83-88.
15. Cankul, I., & Toprak, Y. (2022) Sürdürülebilir Gastronomi Bağlamında Dikey Tarım Uygulamaları. Journal of Gastronomy, Hospitality and Travel, 5 (4), 1760-1767.
16. Carillo, P., Morrone, B., Fusco, G. M., De Pascale, S., & Rouphael, Y. (2020). Challenges for a sustainable food production system on board of the international space station: A technical review. Agronomy, 10(5), 687.
17. Chandra, S., Khan, S., Avula, B., Lata, H., Yang, M. H., ElSohly, M. A., & Khan, I. A. (2014). Assessment of total phenolic and flavonoid content, antioxidant properties, and yield of aeroponically and conventionally grown leafy vegetables and fruit crops: A comparative study. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2014.
18. Chaudhry, A.R., & Mishra, V.P. (2019). A comparative analysis of vertical agriculture systems in residential apartments. In 2019 Advances in Science and Engineering Technology International Conferences (ASET) (pp. 1-5). IEEE.
19. Chole, A. S., Jadhav, A. R., & Shinde, V. (2021). Vertical farming: Controlled environment agriculture. Just Agric, 1, 249-256.
20. Choudhury M. R. & Dutta, A. (2022). Aeroponics. https://engrxiv.org/preprint/view/2481/version/3621. (Erişim tarihi: 28.11.2023).
21. Clawson, J. M., Hoehn, A., Stodieck, L. S., Todd, P., & Stoner, R. J. (2000). Re-examining aeroponics for spaceflight plant growth (No. 2000-01-2507). SAE Technical Paper.
22. Colt, J., Schuur, A. M., Weaver, D., & Semmens, K. (2022). Engineering design of aquaponics systems. Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture, 30(1), 33-80.
23. Cooper, A. J. (1975). Crop production in recirculating nutrient solution. Scientia Horticulturae, 3(3), 251-258. Cooper, D. (2013). GrowCube promises to grow food with ease indoors (hands-on). Engaget.
24. Cekal, N., & Dogan, E. (2022). Sürdürülebilir gastronomide standart reçete ve coğrafi işaretlerin önemi. Turizm Çalışmaları Dergisi, 4(1), 49-60.
25. Celebi, S. E. (2019). Mevcut yapıların sürdürülebilirlik açısından yeniden kullanımlarında dikey tarım uygulamaları üzerine bir araştırma: İstanbul porselen fabrikası (Master’s thesis, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü).
26. Cilginoglu, H., Muharrem, A., & Cilginoglu, U. (2022). Sürdürülebilir gastronomi açısından dikey tarımın önemi. Journal of Humanities and Tourism Research, 12(3), 455-467.
27. Dalrymple, D. G. (1973). Controlled environment agriculture: A global review of greenhouse food production. Despommier, D. (1999). Vertical farming. McArthur “Genius” Fellow, New York.
28. Despommier, D. (2013). Farming up the city: The rise of urban vertical farms. Trends in Biotechnology, 31(7), 388-389.
29. El-Kazzaz, K. A., & El-Kazzaz, A. A. (2017). Soilless agriculture a new and advanced method for agriculture development: an introduction. Agric. Res. Technol. Open Access J, 3, 63-72.
30. Fletcher, J., Willby, N., Oliver, D., & Quilliam, R. S. (2023). Engineering aquatic plant community composition on floating treatment wetlands can increase ecosystem multifunctionality. Environmental Research, 117818.
31. Food & Agriculture Organization. (2018). Future of Food and Agriculture 2018: Alternative Pathways to 2050. Rome. 224 pp. Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.
32. Francis, F., Vishnu, P. L., Jha, M., & Rajaram, B. (2018). IOT-based automated aeroponics system. In Intelligent Embedded Systems: Select Proceedings of ICNETS2, Volume II (pp. 337-345). Springer Singapore.
33. Garg, A., & Balodi, R. (2014). Recent trends in agriculture: vertical farming and organic farming. Adv Plants Agric Res, 1(4), 00023.
34. Gastronomi Turkey by Rafine, (2021). Gastronomiturkey, https://www.gastronomiturkey.com/. (Erişim tarihi: 28.11.2023).
35. Gericke, W. F. (1937). Hydroponics crop production in liquid culture media. Science, 85(2198), 177-178.
36. Germer, J., Brandt, C., Rasche, F., Dockhorn, T., & Bliedung, A. (2023). Growth of lettuce in hydroponics fed with aerobic-and anaerobic–aerobic-treated domestic wastewater. Agriculture, 13(8), 1529.
37. Ghosh, S. (2021). Urban Agriculture on the Rooftop. JOJ Horticulture & Arboriculture.
38. Goh, Y. S., Hum, Y. C., Lee, Y. L., Lai, K. W., Yap, W. S., & Tee, Y. K. (2023). A meta-analysis: Food production and vegetable crop yields of hydroponics. Scientia Horticulturae, 321, 112339.
39. Goodman, W., & Minner, J. (2019). Will the urban agricultural revolution be vertical and soilless? A case study of controlled environment agriculture in New York City. Land use policy, 83, 160-173.
40. Gopinath, P., Vethamoni, P. I., & Gomathi, M. (2017). Aeroponics soilless cultivation system for vegetable crops. Chem. Sci. Rev. Lett, 6(22), 838-849.
41. Gosh, K., & Chowdhury, S. (2019). Review of aquaponics system: searching for a technically feasible and economically profitable aquaponics system. Journal of Agricultural, Environmental and Consumer Sciences, 19, 5-13.
42. Graves, C. J. (1983). The nutrient film technique. Horticultural Reviews, 5, 1-44.
43. Gulati, R. (2022). The Messy but Essential Pursuit of PurposeWin. Harvard Business Review, 45.
44. Gupta, M. K., & Ganapuram, S. (2019). Vertical farming using information and communication technologies. Infosys.
45. GVR. Hydroponics Market Size (2021-2028), (2021). https://www.grandviewresearch.com/. Erişim tarihi:23.12.2023.
46. Hallock, L. S. (2013). Vertical farms, urban restructuring and the rise of capitalist urban agriculture. Agrarian and Environmental Studies (AES). Retrieved from http://hdl. handle. net/2105/15226.
47. Harada, Y., Whitlow, T. H., Templer, P. H., Howarth, R. W., Walter, M. T., Bassuk, N. L., et al. (2018a). Nitrogen biogeochemistry of an urban rooftop farm. Front. Ecol. Evol. 6:153.
48. Harada, Y., Whitlow, T. H., Todd Walter, M., Bassuk, N. L., Russell-Anelli, J., & Schindelbeck, R. R. (2018b). Hydrology of the Brooklyn Grange, an urban rooftop farm. Urban ecosystems, 21, 673-689.
49. Hati, A. J., & Singh, R. R. (2021). Smart indoor farms: leveraging technological advancements to power a sustainable agricultural revolution. AgriEngineering, 3(4), 728-767.
50. Hershey, D. R. (1994). Solution culture hydroponics: history & inexpensive equipment. The American Biology Teacher, 56(2), 111-118.
51. Hoagland, D. R., & Arnon, D. I. (1938). Growing plants without soil by the water-culture method. Growing plants without soil by the water-culture method.
52. Hoagland, D. R., & Arnon, D. I. (1950). The water-culture method for growing plants without soil. Circular. California agricultural experiment station, 347(2nd edit).
53. Ikiz, B., Dasgan, H. Y., & Dere, S. (2018). Optimization of root spraying time for fresh onion (Allium cepa L.) cultivation in aeroponics. In XXX International Horticultural Congress IHC2018: II International Symposium on Soilless Culture and VIII International 1273 (pp. 101-106).
54. Jensen, M. H., & Collins, W. L. (1985). Hydroponic vegetable production. Horticultural reviews, 7, 483-558. John F. Kennedy Space Center; (2020). NASA.Veggie.
55. https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/veggie_fact_sheet_508.pdf/. Erişim tarihi:28.11.2023 Jones Jr, J. B. (1982). Hydroponics: its history and use in plant nutrition studies. Journal of Plant Nutrition, 5(8), 1003-1030.
56. Kalantari, F., Tahir, O. M., Joni, R. A., & Fatemi, E. (2018). Opportunities and challenges in sustainability of vertical farming: A review. Journal of Landscape Ecology, 11(1), 35-60.
57. Kargin, H., & Bilguven, M. (2018). Akuakültürde akuaponik sistemler ve önemi. Bursa Uludağ Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi, 32(2), 159-173.
58. Kasozi, N., Abraham, B., Kaiser, H., & Wilhelmi, B. (2021). The complex microbiome in aquaponics: significance of the bacterial ecosystem. Annals of Microbiology, 71(1), 1-13.
59. Kaur, G., & Chawla, P. (2021). All about vertical farming: A review. Turkish Journal of Computer and Mathematics Education, 12(2), 1-14.
60. Khater, E. S., Bahnasawy, A., Abass, W., Morsy, O., El-Ghobashy, H., Shaban, Y., & Egela, M. (2021). Production of basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) under different soilless cultures. Scientific Reports, 11(1), 12754.
61. Khodadad, C. L., Dixit, A., Spencer, L. E., Hummerick, M. E., Richards, J. T., Spern, C. J., ... & Romeyn, M. W. (2022). Microbial Analysis of Chile Peppers Grown in NASA’s Advanced Plant Habitat on the International Space Station. In American Society for Gravitational and Space Research.
62. Kim, T. K., Yong, H. I., Kim, Y. B., Kim, H. W., & Choi, Y. S. (2019). Edible insects as a protein source: A review of public perception, processing technology, and research trends. Food Science of Animal Resources, 39(4), 521.
63. Kockaya, E. S., & Cemal, U. N. (2022). Life of Plants in Space: A Challenging Mission For Tiny Greens In An Everlasting Darkness. Havacılık ve Uzay Çalışmaları Dergisi, 2(2), 1-23.
64. Kou, L., Yang, T., Luo, Y., Liu, X., Huang, L., & Codling, E. (2014). Pre-harvest calciumapplication increases biomass and delays senescence of broccoli microgreens.Postharvest Biology and Technology,87,70–78.
65. Krastanova, M., Sirakov, I., Ivanova-Kirilova, S., Yarkov, D., & Orozova, P. (2022). Aquaponic systems: Biological and technological parameters. Biotechnology & Biotechnological Equipment, 36(1), 305-316.
66. Kurum, A. (2021). INBUSINESS. https://www.inbusiness.com.tr/in-business/2021/07/22/dikey-tarim-donemi/, (Erişim tarihi: 28.11.2023).
67. Kushwaha, J., Priyadarsini, M., Rani, J., Pandey, K. P., & Dhoble, A. S. (2023). Aquaponic trends, configurations, operational parameters, and microbial dynamics: A concise review. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 1-34.
68. Kyaw, T. Y., & Ng, A. K. (2017). Smart aquaponics system for urban farming. Energy Procedia, 143, 342-347.
69. Lages Barbosa, G., Almeida Gadelha, F. D., Kublik, N., Proctor, A., Reichelm, L., Weissinger, E., ... & Halden, R. U. (2015). Comparison of land, water, and energy requirements of lettuce grown using hydroponic vs. conventional agricultural methods. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 12(6), 6879-6891.
70. Lakhiar, I. A., Gao, J., Syed, T. N., Chandio, F. A., & Buttar, N. A. (2018). Modern plant cultivation technologies in agriculture under controlled environment: A review on aeroponics. Journal of Plant Interactions, 13(1), 338-352.
71. Lakhiar, I. A., Gao, J., Syed, T. N., Chandio, F. A., Tunio, M. H., Ahmad, F., & Solangi, K. A. (2020). Overview of the aeroponic agriculture–An emerging technology for global food security. International Journal of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, 13(1), 1-10.
72. Lawrence, K., Gumbo, T., & Jeeva, Z. (2022). The influence of rooftop agriculture on urban food security in South Africa. Proceedings of the International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations Management Istanbul, Turkey, March 7-10, 2022.
73. Lee, J., & Chuang, I. T. (2017). Living green shell: urban micro-vertical farm. In 2017 International Conference on Applied System Innovation (ICASI) (pp. 1087-1090). IEEE.
74. Levine, H. G. (2022, July). Current Capabilities for Growing Plants in Space. In Plant Biology Conference. Liu, Y., Xie, G., Yang, Q., & Ren, M. (2021). Biotechnological development of plants for space agriculture. Nature Communications, 12(1), 5998.
75. Love, D. C., Uhl, M. S., & Genello, L. (2015). Energy and water use of a small-scale raft aquaponics system in Baltimore, Maryland, United States. Aquacultural Engineering, 68, 19-27.
76. Martin, M., Poulikidou, S., & Molin, E. (2019). Exploring the environmental performance of urban symbiosis for vertical hydroponic farming. Sustainability, 11(23), 6724.
77. Massa, G., Romeyn, M., Spencer, L., Johnson, C., Poulet, L., & Wheeler, R. (2021). NCERA-101 Station Report from Kennedy Space Center, FL, USA.
78. Massa, G.D.; Newsham, G.; Hummerick, M.E.; Morrow, R.C.; Wheeler, R.M. Plant Pillow Preparation for the Veggie Plant Growth System on the International Space Station. Gravit. Space Res. Vol. 2017, 5, 24–34.
79. Mhadhbi, H. (2012). Plant hydroponic cultivation: A support for biology research in the field of plant-microbe-environment interactions. Hydroponics–A Standard Methodology for Plant Biological Researches, 101.
80. Mir, M. S., Naikoo, N. B., Kanth, R. H., Bahar, F. A., Bhat, M. A., Nazir, A., ... & Ahngar, T. A. (2022). Vertical farming: The future of agriculture: A review. The Pharma Innovation Journal, 11(2), 1175-1195.
81. Mir, S. A., Shah, M. A., & Mir, M. M. (2017). Microgreens: Production, shelf life, and bioactive components. Critical reviews in food science and nutrition, 57(12), 2730-2736.
82. Monje, O., Dimapilis, D. I., Tellez-Giron, G. M., De Mars, M., Dufour, N. F., Levine, H. G., & Onate, B. G. (2018, July). Validation of the Advanced Plant Habitat Facility on ISS. In International Space Station Research & Development (ISSR&D) Conference (No. KSC-E-DAA-TN59364).
83. Morrow, R., Wetzel, J., Moffatt, S., Bair, M., & Kelsey, L. (2023, July). The Roles of Plants in a Commercial Space Habitat. 2023 International Conference on Environmental Systems.
84. Morsi, A., Massa, G. D., Morrow, R. C., Wheeler, R. M., & Mitchell, C. A. (2022). Comparison of two controlled-release fertilizer formulations for cut-and-come-again harvest yield and mineral content of Lactuca sativa L. cv. Outredgeous grown under International Space Station environmental conditions. Life Sciences in Space Research, 32, 71-78.
85. Moller Voss, P. (2013). Vertical Farming: An agricultural revolution on the rise. NASA (2006). Progressive plant growing has business blooming. In Environmental and Agricultural Resources (New York: NASA Spinoff), p.64–77.
86. NASA, (2013). Model Organisms: Shining Examples for Simple, Effective Biology Research. NASA: https://blogs.nasa.gov/ISS_Science_Blog /tag/plants/, (Erişim tarihi: 28.11.2023).
87. NASA (2021). NASA Research Launches a New Generation of Indoor Farming. https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/spinoff/NASA_Research_Launches_a_New_Generation_of_Indoor_Farming/, (Erişim tarihi: 28.08.2023).
88. Nasr, J., Komisar, J., & Gorgolewski, M. (2014). Urban agriculture as ordinary urban practice: Trends and lessons. In Second Nature Urban Agriculture (pp. 24-31). Routledge.
89. Nguyen, M., Knowling, M., Tran, N. N., Burgess, A., Fisk, I., Watt, M., ... & Hessel, V. (2023). Space farming: Horticulture systems on spacecraft and outlook to planetary space exploration. Plant Physiology and Biochemistry.
90. Nicholson, W. L., Fajardo-Cavazos, P., Turner, C., Currie, T. M., Gregory, G., Jurca, T., & Weislogel, M. (2021). Design and Validation of a Device for Mitigating Fluid Microgravity Effects in Biological Research in Canister Spaceflight Hardware. Frontiers in Space Technologies, 2, 797518.
91. Noh, A. M., Noor, H. M., & Ahmad, F. (2021). CFD Simulation of the Airflow Distribution Inside Cube-Grow. CFD Letters, 13(12), 81-89. Pagliarulo, C. L., & Hayden, A. L. (2002, February). Potential for greenhouse aeroponic cultivation of medicinal root crops. In Proc. of Conf. of the Amer. Plasticult. Soc., San Diego, California.
92. Pandey, N., Kamboj, N., Sharma, A. K., & Kumar, A. (2022). An Overview of Recent Advancements in the Irrigation, Fertilization, and Technological Revolutions of Agriculture. Environmental Pollution and Natural Resource Management, 167-184.
93. Pandey, R., Jain, V., & Singh, K. P. (2009). Hydroponics Agriculture: Its status, scope and limitations. Division of Plant Physiology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, 20.
94. Pantanella, E. (2018). Aquaponics production, practices and opportunities. Sustainable Aquaculture, 191-248. Papadopoulos, I. (2021). Hydroponic systems manufacturing using 3D printing. International Hellenic University, Unıversity Center of Internatıonal Programmes of Studies School of Science and Technology, Greece.
95. Plakias, A. C. (2016). The Farm on the Roof: What Brooklyn Grange Taught us About Entrepreneurship, Community, and Growing a Sustainable Business. New York, NY: Penguin Publishing Group.
96. Pomoni, D. I., Koukou, M. K., Vrachopoulos, M. G., & Vasiliadis, L. (2023). A review of hydroponics and conventional agriculture based on energy and water consumption, environmental impact, and land use. Energies, 16(4), 1690.
97. Rakesh, J., & Jayakrishna, V. V. S. (2022). Vertical farming: Future of modern agriculture. Vigyan Varta 3(6): 101-103.
98. Rakocy, J. E., Bailey, D. S., Shultz, R. C., & Thoman, E. S. (2004, September). Update on tilapia and vegetable production in the UVI aquaponic system. In New dimensions on farmed Tilapia: proceedings of the sixth international symposium on Tilapia in Aquaculture, held September (pp. 12-16).
99. Rakocy, J. E., Masser, M. P., & Losordo, T. M. (2016). Recirculating aquaculture tank production systems: aquaponics-integrating fish and plant culture. Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service.
100. Raviv, M., & Lieth, J. H. (2007). Soilless culture: theory and practice: Elsevier Science Ltd.
101. Reed, D. W., & Vanden Bosch, C. A. (2023). Engineering Perspectives of Growing Plants in Space. Journal of the Indian Institute of Science, 1-9.
102. Renna, M., Di Gioia, F., Leoni, B., Mininni, C., & Santamaria, P. (2017). Culinary assessment of self-produced microgreens as basic ingredients in sweet and savory dishes. Journal of culinary science & technology, 15(2), 126-142.
103. Richa, A., Touil, S., Fizir, M., & Martinez, V. (2020). Recent advances and perspectives in the treatment of hydroponic wastewater: a review. Reviews in Environmental Science and Bio/Technology, 19(4), 945-966.
104. Ridden, P. (2021, Ocak 20). newatlas. https://newatlas.com/good-thinking/vertical-field-urban-farm-geoponics/. (Erişim tarihi: 28.11.2023).
105. Ritz-Carlton. (2015). “The Grow House”at the Ritz-Carlton, Naples. Retrieved fromhttp://news.ritzcarlton.com/2015/10/the-grow-house-at-the-ritz-carlton-naples/. (Erişim tarihi: 28.11.2023).
106. Royte, E., Kehinde, O., & Babajide, A. (2015). Urban farming is booming, but what does it really yield. Ensia. com.
107. Sajiv, G., Anburani, A., & Venkatakrishnan, D. (2023). Study on the growth of eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) under hydroponics with modified Hoagland solution. J. Curr. Res. Food Sci, 4, 04-06.
108. Schmautz, Z., Graber, A., Jaenicke, S., Goesmann, A., Junge, R., & Smits, T. H. (2017). Microbial diversity in different compartments of an aquaponics system. Archives of Microbiology, 199, 613-620.
109. Sempsrott, D. (2021, Aralık 1). National Aeronautics and Space Administration. NASA.gov: https://www.nasa.gov/content/plant-habitat-04/. (Erişim tarihi: 28.11.2023).
110. Serdar, E. (2018). Ekolojik restoranlar ve perma-kültür uygulamaları: Ekbiçyeiç restoranı üzerine bir araştırma. Güncel Turizm Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2(Ek1), 534-552.
111. Shafeena, T. (2016). Smart aquaponics system: Challenges and opportunities. European Journal of Advances in Engineering and Technology, 3(2), 52-55.
112. Spencer, L., Torres, J., Mejia, O., Richards, J., Dufour, N., & Romeyn, M. (2020, November). Demonstration of a Long Duration Crop in the Advanced Plant Habitat Engineering Demonstration Unit: Key Factors to Consider Prior to Testing and Lessons Learned. In American Society for Gravitational and Space Research.
113. Swain, A., Chatterjee, S., & Vishwanath, M. (2021). Hydroponics in vegetable crops: A review. The Pharma Innovation Journal, 10(6), 629-634.
114. Swain, A., Chatterjee, S., & Vishwanath, M. (2021). Hydroponics in vegetable crops: A review. The Pharma Innovation Journal, 10(6), 629-634.
115. Sahin, G., & Kendirli, B. (2016). Yeni bir zirai işletme modeli: Dikey Çiftlikler. TÜCAUM Uluslararası Coğrafya Sempozyumu, 13, 14.
116. TechPort. Vegetable Production System (Veggie). 2018. Available online: https://techport.nasa.gov/view/ 10498/, (accessed on 10 May 2020).
117. Teng, Z., Luo, Y., Pearlstein, D. J., Wheeler, R. M., Johnson, C. M., Wang, Q., & Fonseca, J. M. (2023). Microgreens for Home, Commercial, and Space Farming: A Comprehensive Update of the Most Recent Developments. Annual Review of Food Science and Technology, 14, 539-562.
118. Torabi, M., Mokhtarzadeh, A., & Mahlooji, M. (2012). The role of hydroponics technique as a standard methodology in various aspects of plant biology researches. Hydroponics– A Standard Methodology for Plant Biological Researches, 113-134.
119. Tsui, T., & Podmirseg, D. Vertical Farming & Future Skills a roadmap for implementation of the Vertical Farming concept.
120. Tyson, R. V., Treadwell, D. D., & Simonne, E. H. (2011). Opportunities and challenges to sustainability in aquaponic systems. HortTechnology, 21(1), 6-13.
121. United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs. (2015). World population predicted to reach 9.7 billion by 2050. https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/news/population/2015-report.html/, (Access date: 28, August 2023).
122. United Nations, Global perspective Human stories. https://news.un.org/en/story/2013/09/448652/, (Erişim Tarihi: 23.12.2023).
123. Waiba, K. M., Sharma, P., Sharma, A., Chadha, S., & Kaur, M. (2020). Soil-less vegetable cultivation: A review. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 9(1), 631-636.
124. Wang, J. (2021). The sprouting farms: you are what you grow. Humanities, 10(1), 27.
125. Wang, M., Danz, K., Ly, V., & Rojas-Pierce, M. (2022). Microgravity enhances the phenotype of Arabidopsis zigzag-1 and reduces the Wortmannin-induced vacuole fusion in root cells. npj Microgravity, 8(1), 38.
126. Went, F. W. (1957). The experimental control of plant growth. The experimental control of plant growth., 17.
127. Wheeler, R. M. (2017). Agriculture for space: People and places paving the way. Open Agriculture, 2(1), 14-32. WHO, (2003). World Health Organization. Cadmium review. www.who.int/ifcs/documents/forums/forum5/nmr_cadmium pdf,/, Last accessed on July 26, 2020.
128. Wilson, G. (2005). Australian barramundi farm goes aquaponic. Aquaponics Journal, 37(2), 12-16.
129. Wong, C., Wood, J., & Paturi, S. (2020). Vertical farming: an assessment of Singapore City. Etropic: electronic journal of studies in the tropics, 19, 228-248.
130. Xiao, Z., Lester, G. E., Luo, Y., Xie, Z. K., Yu, L. L., & Wang, Q. (2014). Effect of light exposure on sensorial quality, concentrations of bioactive compounds and antioxidant capacity of radish microgreens during low temperature storage. Food chemistry, 151, 472-479.
131. Yang, Y. (2022). Flat Rooftops as Productive Landscapes in Birmingham. Journal of Architectural Research and Development, 6(6), 53-58.
132. Yep, B., & Zheng, Y. (2019). Aquaponic trends and challenges–A review. Journal of Cleaner Production, 228, 1586-1599.
133. Yildiz, H. Y., & Pulatsu, S. (2022). Sıfır atığa doğru: Su ürünleri yetiştiriciliğinde sürdürülebilir atık yönetimi. Ege Journal of Fisheries & Aquatic Sciences (EgeJFAS)/Su Ürünleri Dergisi, 39(4).
134. Zaid, S. M., Perisamy, E., Hussein, H., Myeda, N. E., & Zainon, N. (2018). Vertical Greenery System in urban tropical climate and its carbon sequestration potential: A review. Ecological Indicators, 91, 57-70.
135. Zareba, A., Krzemińska, A., & Kozik, R. (2021). Urban vertical farming as an example of nature-based solutions supporting a healthy society living in the urban environment. Resources, 10(11), 109.