Visual Impact and Potential Visibility Assessment of Wind Turbines Installed in Turkey

Abstract

Global installed wind power capacity has risen nearly 4.3 times in the last decade, from 120.7 GW in 2008 to more than 591 GW in 2018. On the other hand, installed wind power capacity in Turkey was reported as 7.37 GW in 2018, and it is scheduled to reach 12 GW in 2023. The aim of this paper is to assess the recent growth of wind power generation in Turkey in terms of power generation technologies, wind power potential, techno-economic feasibility, and visibility of onshore wind turbines. In this respect, several metrics such as cumulative installed wind power capacity (MW), total number of turbines, total swept area of turbines (km2), total hub height of turbines (km), number of the turbine per turbine power capacity (1/GW), swept area per turbine power capacity (m2/MW) and hub height per turbine power capacity (m/MW) are developed to assess wind power generation regionally between the years of 2010 and 2018. Results show that wind power generation capacity is on the rise in Turkey. But this growth also implies an increase in the number and size of turbines. Eventually, turbines with higher hubs and rotor diameters have become more abundant and visible in landscapes.  

Keywords

• Landscape
• Wind Energy
• Potential visibility
• Wind energy
• Wind turbine technology
• Turbine size

References

1. [1] IEA, International Energy Agency. Energy statistics manual, https://www.iea.org. Access date 25.08.2018.
2. [2] Waewsak, J., Landry, M. and Gagnon, Y., “Offshore wind power potential of the gulf of Thailand”, Renewable Energy, 81: 609-626, (2015).
3. [3] Kaplan, Y.A., “Overview of wind Energy in the world and assessment of current wind energy policies in Turkey”, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 43: 562-568, (2015).
4. [4] Bilgili, M., Ozbek, A., Sahin, B. and Kahraman, A., “An overview of renewable electric power capacity and progress in new technologies in the World”, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 49: 323-334, (2015).
5. [5] Korompili, A., Wu, Q. and Zhao, H., “Review of VSC HVDC connection for offshore wind power integration”, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 59: 1405-1414, (2016).
6. [6] Emmanouil, G., Galanis, G., Kalogeri, C., Zodiatis, G. and Kallos, G., “10-Year high resolution study of wind, sea waves and wave energy assessment in the Greek offshore areas”, Renewable Energy, 90: 399-419, (2016).
7. [7] Söderholm, P. and Pettersson, M., “Offshore wind power policy and planning in Sweden”, Energy Policy, 39: 518-525, (2011).
8. [8] IRENA, International Renewable Energy Agency. Renewable energy benefits: measuring the economics, http://www.irena.org. Access date 25.08.2018.

9. [9] IEA, International Energy Agency. Technology roadmap, Carbon capture and storage, https://www.iea.org. Access date 25.08.2018.
10. [10] IEA, International Energy Agency. Energy technology perspectives, https://www.iea.org. Access date 25.08.2018.
11. [11] IEA, International Energy Agency. Technology roadmap, wind energy, https://www.iea.org. Access date 25.08.2018.
12. [12] IEA, International Energy Agency. Carbon capture and storage, the solution for deep emissions reductions, https://www.iea.org. Access date 25.08.2018.
13. [13] Zheng, C.W., Li, C.Y., Pan, J., Liu, M.Y. and Xia, L.L., “An overview of global ocean wind energy resource evaluations”, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 53: 1240-1251, (2016).
14. [14] IRENA-GWEC, International Renewable Energy Agency-Global Wind Energy Council. 30 years of policies for wind energy, http://www.irena.org. Access date 25.08.2018.
15. [15] Liu, T.Y., Tavner, P.J., Feng, Y. and Qiu, Y.N., “Review of recent offshore wind power developments in China”, Wind Energy, 16: 786-803, (2013).
16. [16] Dhanju, A., Firestone, J. and Kempton, W., “Potential role of power authorities in offshore wind power development in the US”, Energy Policy, 39: 7025-7035, (2011).
17. [17] Chen, J., “Development of offshore wind power in China”, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 15: 5013-5020, (2011).
18. [18] IRENA, International Renewable Energy Agency. Wind power technology brief, http://www.irena.org. Access date 25.08.2018.
19. [19] Abromas, J., “Assessment of the visual impact of wind turbines on the landscape”, Summary of Doctoral Dissertation, Technological Sciences, Environmental Engineering (04T), Kaunas University of Technology, Lithuanian Energy Institute, 2014, Kaunas.
20. [20] Jombach, S., Drexler, D. and Sallay, Á., “Using GIS for visibility assessment of a wind farm in Perenye, Hungary”, Peer Reviewed Proceedings of Digital Landscape Architectura, Chapter: Conference paper, Publisher: Herbert Wichmann Verlag im Verlag VDE GmbH, Editors: Buhmann, Pietsch, Kretzler, 322-331, (2015).
21. [21] Tsoutsos, T., Tsouchlaraki, A., Tsiropoulos, M. and Kaldellis, J., “Visual impact evaluation methods of wind parks: Application for a Greek Island”, Wind Engineering, 33: 83-92, (2009).
22. [22] Tsoutsos, T., Tsouchlaraki, A., Tsiropoulos, M. and Serpetsidakis, M., “Visual impact evaluation of a wind park in a Greek island”, Applied Energy, 86: 546-553, (2009).
23. [23] Katsaprakakis, D.A., “A review of the environmental and human impacts from wind parks. A case study for the Prefecture of Lasithi, Crete”, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 16: 2850-2863, (2012).
24. [24] Gibbons, S., “Gone with the wind: Valuing the visual impacts of wind turbines through house prices”, Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 72: 177-196, (2015).
25. [25] Bishop, I.D. and Miller, D.R., “Visual assessment of off-shore wind turbines: The influence of distance, contrast, movement and social variables”, Renewable Energy, 32: 814-831, (2007).
26. [26] Maehr, A.M., Watts, G.R., Hanratty, J. and Talmi, D., “Emotional response to images of wind turbines: A psychophysiological study of their visual impact on the landscape”, Landscape and Urban Planning, 142: 71-79, (2015).
27. [27] Molnarova, K., Sklenicka, P., Stiborek, J., Svobodova, K., Salek, M. and Brabec, E., “Visual preferences for wind turbines: Location, numbers and respondent characteristics”, Applied Energy, 92: 269-278, (2012).
28. [28] Svobodova, K., Sklenicka, P., Molnarova, K. and Salek, M., “Visual preferences for physical attributes of mining and post-mining landscapes with respect to the sociodemographic characteristics of respondents”, Ecological Engineering, 43: 34-44, (2012).
29. [29] Betakova, V., Vojar, J.and Sklenicka, P., “Wind turbines location: How many and how far?”, Applied Energy, 151: 23-31, (2015).
30. [30] Maslov, N., Claramunt, C., Wang, T. and Tang, T., “Evaluating the visual impact of an offshore wind farm”, Energy Procedia, 105: 3095-3100, (2017).
31. [31] Maslov, N., Claramunt, C., Wang, T. and Tang, T., “Method to estimate the visual impact of an offshore wind farm”, Applied Energy, 204: 1422-1430, (2017).
32. [32] Corry, R.C., “A case study on visual impact assessment for wind energy development”, Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal, 29: 303-315, (2011).
33. [33] Wang, Q., M’Ikiugu, M.M. and Kinoshita, I., “Visual impact evaluation of wind farms: a Case Study of Choshi City, Japan”, Civil and Environmental Research, 3: 97-107, (2013).
34. [34] Chias, P. and Abad, T., “Wind farms: GIS-based visual impact assessment and visualization tools”, Cartography and Geographic Information Science, 40: 229-237, (2013).
35. [35] Wrozynski, R., Sojka, M., Pyszny, K., “The application of GIS and 3D graphic software to visual impact assessment of wind turbines” Renewable Energy, 96: 625-635, (2016).
36. [36] Maehr, A.M., Watts, G.R., Hanratty, J., Talmi, D., “Emotional response to images of wind turbines: A psychophysiological study of their visual impact on the landscape” Landscape and Urban Planning, 142: 71-79, (2015).
37. [37] Minelli, A., Marchesini, I., Taylor, F.E., De Rosa, P., Casagrande, L., Cenci, M., “An open source GIS tool to quantify the visual impact of wind turbines and photovoltaic panels” Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 49: 70-78, (2014).
38. [38] Skenteris, K., Mirasgedis, S., Tourkolias, C., “Implementing hedonic pricing models for valuing the visual impact of wind farms in Greece” Economic Analysis and Policy, 64: 248-258, (2019).
39. [39] Bernetti, I., Bambi, L., Barbierato, E., Borghini, T., Capecchi, I., “A decision support system for assessing the perception and acceptance of WTs in high-value landscapes: The case of Chianti Classico (Italy)” Aestimum, 76(1): 19-42, (2020).
40. [40] Corry R.C., “A case study on visual impact assessment for wind energy development” Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal, 29(4): 303-315, (2011).
41. [41] Lothian, A., “A survey of the visual impact and community acceptance of wind farms in Australia” Australian Planner, 56(3): 217-227, (2020).
42. [42] Abromas, J., Virbašienė, J.K., Ziemeļniece, A., “Visual impact assessment of wind turbines and their farms on landscape of Kretinga region (Lithuania) and Grobina townscape (Latvia)” Journal of Environmental Engineering and Landscape Management, 23(1): 39-49, (2015).
43. [43] Bilgili, M., Tontu, M., SAhin, B., "Aerodynamic rotor performance of a 3300-kW modern commercial large-scale wind turbine installed in a wind farm" Journal of Energy Resources Technology, 143: 031302, (2021).
44. [44] Bilgili, M., Ekinci, F., Demirdelen, T., "A comparison of the performance characteristics of large 2 MW and 3 MW wind turbines on existing onshore wind farms" Wind and Structures, 32(2): 81-87, (2021).
45. [45] REN21, Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century, Global status report, http://www.ren21.net. Access date 10.07.2019.
46. [46] GWEC, Global Wind Energy Council, Global wind report, http://www.gwec.net. Access date 10.07.2019.
47. [47] Bilgili, M. and Sahin, B., “Electric power plants and electricity generation in Turkey”, Energy Sources, Part B: Economics, Planning, and Policy, 5: 81-92, (2010).
48. [48] Sahin, A.D., “A Review of research and development of wind energy in Turkey”, Clean-Soil Air Water, 36: 734-742, (2008).
49. [49] Bilgili, M., “A global review of wind power installations and their development in Turkey”, Clean-Soil Air Water, 37: 195-202 (2009).
50. [50] IEA, International Energy Agency. Energy policies of IEA countries, https://www.iea.org. Access date 25.08.2018.
51. [51] TWEA, Turkish Wind Energy Association, http://www.tureb.com.tr/bilgi-bankasi/turkiye-res-durumu. Access date 10.07.2019).
52. [52] Jones, C.R. and Eiser, J.R., "Understanding 'local' opposition to wind development in the UK: How big is a backyard?", Energy Policy, 38: 3106-3117, (2010).
53. [53] Cografyaharita, Turkey energy generation maps. http://cografyaharita.com/. Access date 10.07.2019.