Antioxidants and Inflammation: Bridging Natural Remedies with Modern Technology for Healthier Living

Abstract

Inflammation is an abnormal process where the body responds to stimuli like poisonous compounds, infections, and injuries. “Injury” can be trauma, infection, or stress causing oxidative stress. These stimuli trigger the release of an immune response to heal damaged tissues and protect the body from the harmful effects of the stimuli. Antioxidants are substances that play a pivotal role in modulating inflammation by scavenging reactive oxygen species (ROS) and mitigating oxidative stress. They prevent the oxidation of an oxidizable substrate at low concentrations, and modulate inflammatory responses by the removal of oxygen, thereby preventing the development of ROS, which supplements the body’s natural defense. Antioxidants are classified into two categories: exogenous and endogenous. The endogenous can be enzymatic or non-enzymatic, while the exogenous are natural compounds such as vitamins and polyphenols or synthetic compounds such as metallic nanoparticles and phenolic compounds. The role of antioxidants in inflammation and inflammatory diseases is multifaceted. By counteracting oxidative stress and modulating inflammatory pathways, antioxidants act as protective agents against various inflammatory conditions. This review discusses the role(s) of antioxidants in inflammation and inflammatory diseases. The role of applications in providing personalised insights into nutrition to help optimise antioxidant intake has also been discussed.

Keywords

• Antioxidants
• Inflammatory Diseases
• Oxidative stress
• Oxidation
• ROS

References

1. 1. Nash AA, Dalziel RG, Fitzgerald JR. Mims' Pathogenesis of Infectious Disease. 6th ed. Edinburgh, UK: Academic Press; 2015. 364 pages
2. 2. Chen L, Deng H, Cui H, Fang J, Zuo Z, Deng J, et al. Inflammatory responses and inflammation-associated diseases in organs. Oncotarget. 2017;9(6):7204–18. https://doi.org/10.18632/oncotarget.23208
3. 3. Furman D, Campisi J, Verdin E, Carrera-Bastos P, Targ S, Franceschi C, et al. Chronic inflammation in the etiology of disease across the life span. Nat Med. 2019;25(12):1822–32. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-019-0675-0
4. 4. Gargano LM, Hughes JM. Microbial origins of chronic diseases. Annual review of public health. 2014 Mar 18;35(1):65-82 https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-032013-182426
5. 5. Pizzino G, Irrera N, Cucinotta M, Pallio G, Mannino F, Arcoraci V, Squadrito F, Altavilla D, Bitto A. Oxidative stress: harms and benefits for human health. Oxidative medicine and cellular longevity. 2017;2017(1):8416763. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/8416763
6. 6. Rodrigues LC, Cerri DG, Marzocchi-Machado CM, Cummings RD, Stowell SR, Dias-Baruffi M. Detection of reactive oxygen species in human neutrophils under various conditions of exposure to galectin. Methods Mol Biol. 2022; 2442:549–64 https://doi.org/ 10.1007/978-1-0716-2055-7_29
7. 7. Hamid A, Aiyelaagbe O, Usman L, Ameen O, Lawal A. Antioxidants: its medicinal and pharmacological applications. Afr J Pure Appl. 2010;4(8):142–51
8. 8. Vezina FA, Cantin AM. Antioxidants and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Chronic Obstr Pulm Dis. 2018;5(4):277–88. https://doi.org/10.15326/jcopdf.5.4.2018.0133

9. 9. Zhang Y, Igwe OJ. Exogenous oxidants activate nuclear factor kappa B through Toll-like receptor 4 stimulation to maintain inflammatory phenotype in macrophage. Biochemical Pharmacology. 2018; 147:104-18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcp.2017.10.010
10. 10. Fujii J, Homma T, Osaki T. Superoxide radicals in the execution of cell death. Antioxidants. 2022;11(3):501. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox11030501
11. 11. Neha K, Haider MR, Pathak A, Yar MS. Medicinal prospects of antioxidants: A review. European journal of medicinal chemistry. 2019; 178:687-704 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejmech.2019.06.010
12. 12. Borisov VB, Siletsky SA, Nastasi MR, Forte E. ROS defense systems and terminal oxidases in bacteria. Antioxidants (Basel). 2021;10(6):839. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox10060839
13. 13. Gutierrez A, Van Wagoner DR. Oxidant and inflammatory mechanisms and targeted therapy in AF: An update. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 2015;66(6): 523 https://doi.org/ 10.1097/FJC.0000000000000304
14. 14. Albano GD, Gagliardo RP, Montalbano AM, Profita M. Overview of the mechanisms of oxidative stress: impact in inflammation of the airway diseases. Antioxidants. 2022 ;11(11):2237. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox11112237
15. 15. Brown OI, Bridge KI, Kearney MT. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidases in glucose homeostasis and diabetes-related endothelial cell dysfunction. Cells. 2021 Sep 4;10(9):2315. https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10092315
16. 16. Tang W, Li X, Lyu M, Huang Q. Cancer cell membrane biomimetic mesoporous nanozyme system with efficient ROS generation for antitumor chemoresistance. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. 2022;2022(1):5089857. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/5089857
17. 17. Dunn JD, Alvarez LA, Zhang X, Soldati T. Reactive oxygen species and mitochondria: A nexus of cellular homeostasis. Redox biology. 2015; 6:472-85. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.redox.2015.09.005
18. 18. Palma FR, He C, Danes JM, Paviani V, Coelho DR, Gantner BN, Bonini MG. Mitochondrial superoxide dismutase: what the established, the intriguing, and the novel reveal about a key cellular redox switch. Antioxidants & redox signaling. 2020;32(10):701-14. https://doi.org/10.1089/ars.2019.7890
19. 19. Rahtes A, Geng S, Lee C, Li L. Cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in the resolution of innate leukocyte inflammation. Journal of leukocyte biology. 2018;104(3):535-41. https://doi.org/10.1002/JLB.4MR0118-021R
20. 20. Arulselvan P, Fard MT, Tan WS, Gothai S, Fakurazi S, Norhaizan ME, Kumar SS. Role of antioxidants and natural products in inflammation. Oxidative medicine and cellular longevity. 2016;2016(1):5276130. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/5276130
21. 21. Markiewski MM, Lambris JD. The role of complement in inflammatory diseases from behind the scenes into the spotlight. The American journal of pathology. 2007 ;171(3):715-27. https://doi.org/10.2353/ajpath.2007.070166
22. 22. Younger DS. Overview of the vasculitides. Neurologic Clinics. 2019 ;37(2):171-200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ncl.2019.01.001
23. 23. Vestweber D. How leukocytes cross the vascular endothelium. Nature Reviews Immunology. 2015;15(11):692-704. https://doi.org/10.1038/nri3908
24. 24. Shaheen ZR, Corbett JA. Macrophage expression of inflammatory genes in response to emcv infection. Biomolecules. 2015 ;5(3):1938-54. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom5031938
25. 25. Shelton HM, Brewbaker JL. Leucaena leucocephala-the most widely used forage tree legume. Forage tree legumes in tropical agriculture. (Eds. RC Gutteridge and HM Shelton). CAB International. Wallingford, 1994; 12;15.
26. 26. Zwarthoff SA, Berends ET, Mol S, Ruyken M, Aerts PC, Józsi M, De Haas CJ, Rooijakkers SH, Gorham Jr RD. Functional characterization of alternative and classical pathway C3/C5 convertase activity and inhibition using purified models. Frontiers in immunology. 2018; 9:1691. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2018.01691
27. 27. Ahmed TJ, Kaneva MK, Pitzalis C, Cooper D, Perretti M. Resolution of inflammation: examples of peptidergic players and pathways. Drug discovery today. ;19(8):1166-71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drudis.2014.05.020
28. 28. Fredman G, Spite M. Specialized pro-resolving mediators in cardiovascular diseases. Mol Aspects Med. 2017 Dec; 58:65-71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mam.2017.02.003
29. 29. Martínez JA, Alonso-Bernáldez M, Martínez-Urbistondo D, Vargas-Nuñez JA, Ramírez de Molina A, Dávalos A, Ramos-Lopez O. Machine learning insights concerning inflammatory and liver-related risk comorbidities in non-communicable and viral diseases. World J Gastroenterol. 2022 Nov 28;28(44):6230-6248. https://doi.org/10.3748/wjg. v28.i44.6230
30. 30. Dongiovanni P, Valenti L. Genetics of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Metabolism. 2016 Aug;65(8):1026-1037. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.metabol.2015.10.031
31. 31. Shi S, Verstegen MMA, Mezzanotte L, De Jonge J, Lowik C, Van Der Laan LJW. Necroptotic cell death in liver transplantation and underlying diseases: mechanisms and clinical perspective. Liver Transpl. 2019 Jul;25(7):1091-1104. https://doi.org/10.1002/lt.25464
32. 32. Shi CX, Wang Y, Jiao FZ, Chen Q, Cao P, Pei MH, Zhang LY, Guo J, Deng W, Wang LW, Gong ZJ. Epigenetic regulation of hepatic stellate cell activation and macrophage in chronic liver inflammation. Front Physiol. 2021 Jul 1; 12:683526. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2021.683526
33. 33. Oh SH, Swiderska-Syn M, Jewell ML, Premont RT, Diehl AM. Liver regeneration requires Yap1-TGFβ-dependent epithelial-mesenchymal transition in hepatocytes. J Hepatol. 2018 Aug;69(2):359-367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhep.2018.05.008
34. 34. Ashok A, Andrabi SS, Mansoor S, Kuang Y, Kwon BK, Labhasetwar V. Antioxidant therapy in oxidative stress-induced neurodegenerative diseases: role of nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems in clinical translation. Antioxidants (Basel). 2022 Feb;11(2):408. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox11020408
35. 35. Liu Z, Ren Z, Zhang J, Chuang CC, Kandaswamy E, Zhou T, et al. Role of ROS and nutritional antioxidants in human diseases. Front Physiol. 2018 Apr 24; 9:477. https://doi.org/ 10.3389/fphys.2018.00477
36. 36. Khayatan D, Razavi SM, Arab ZN, Hosseini Y, Niknejad A, Momtaz S, et al. Superoxide dismutase: a key target for the neuroprotective effects of curcumin. Mol Cell Biochem. 2024;479(3):693–705. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11010-023-04757-5
37. 37. Rammohan A, Zyryanov GV, Bhagath YB, Manjula K. Antioxidants: Structure-activity of plant polyphenolics. Vitam Horm. 2023; 121:395-411. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.vh.2022.10.001
38. 38. Diaz de Barboza G, Guizzardi S, Moine L, Tolosa de Talamoni N. Oxidative stress, antioxidants and intestinal calcium absorption. World J Gastroenterol. 2017 Apr 28;23(16):2841-2853. https://doi.org/10.3748/wjg. v23.i16.2841
39. 39. Saito Y. Diverse cytoprotective actions of vitamin E isoforms—role as peroxyl radical scavengers and complementary functions with selenoproteins. Free Radic Biol Med. 2021 Nov 1; 175:121-129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2021.08.234
40. 40. Pirhadi-Tavandashti N, Imani H, Ebrahimpour-Koujan S, Samavat S, Hakemi MS. The effect of vitamin E supplementation on biomarkers of endothelial function and inflammation among hemodialysis patients: A double-blinded randomized clinical trial. Complement Ther Med. 2020 Dec; 49:102357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ctim.2020.102357
41. 41. Rizvi S, Raza ST, Ahmed F, Ahmad A, Abbas S, Mahdi F. The role of vitamin E in human health and some diseases. Sultan Qaboos Univ Med J. 2014 May;14(2):e157-65. https://doi.org/10.18295/squmj.2014.14.02.010
42. 42. Abdollahzad H. Importance of antioxidants in rheumatoid arthritis. Austin Arthritis. 2016;1(1):1005.
43. 43. Dailah HG. Therapeutic potential of small molecules targeting oxidative stress in the treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD): A comprehensive review. Molecules. 2022;27(17):5542. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27175542
44. 44. Stamouli EC, Politis AM. Pro-inflammatory cytokines in Alzheimer's disease. Psychiatriki. 2016;27(4):264-275.
45. 45. Xie L, Liu Y, Zhang N, Li C, Sandhu AF, Williams III G, Shen Y, Li H, Wu Q, Yu S. Electroacupuncture improves M2 microglia polarization and glia anti-inflammation of hippocampus in Alzheimer's disease. Front Neurosci. 2021; 15:689629. https://doi.org/ 10.3389/fnins.2021.689629
46. 46. Huang Z, Zhou T, Sun X, Zheng Y, Cheng B, Li M, Liu X, He C. Necroptosis in microglia contributes to neuroinflammation and retinal degeneration through TLR4 activation. Cell Death Differ. 2018;25(1):180-189. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41418-017-0005-0
47. 47. Sinyor B, Mineo J, Ochner C. Alzheimer's disease, inflammation, and the role of antioxidants. J Alzheimers Dis Rep. 2020;4(1):175-183. https://doi.org/10.3233/ADR-200171.
48. 48. Ali SS, Ahsan H, Zia MK, Siddiqui T, Khan FH. Understanding oxidants and antioxidants: Classical team with new players. J Food Biochem. 2020;44(3):e13145. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfbc.13145
49. 49. Gęgotek A, Skrzydlewska E. Antioxidative and anti-inflammatory activity of ascorbic acid. Antioxidants (Basel). 2022;11(10):1993. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox11101993
50. 50. Mohd Zaffarin AS, Ng SF, Ng MH, Hassan H, Alias E. Pharmacology and pharmacokinetics of vitamin E: Nanoformulations to enhance bioavailability. Int J Nanomedicine. 2020; 15:9961-9974. https://doi.org/10.2147/IJN.S276355
51. 51. Hegazy AM, El-Sayed EM, Ibrahim KS, Abdel-Azeem AS. Dietary antioxidant for disease prevention corroborated by the Nrf2 pathway. J Complement Integr Med. 2019;16(3). https://doi.org/ 10.1515/jcim-2018-0042
52. 52. Abeyrathne EDNS, Nam K, Huang X, Ahn DU. Plant- and animal-based antioxidants' structure, efficacy, mechanisms, and applications: A review. Antioxidants (Basel). 202211(5):1025. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox11051025
53. 53. Edem DO. Vitamin A: a review. Asian J Clin Nutr. 2009;1(1):65-82. https://doi.org/10.3923/ajcn.2009.65.82
54. 54. Taha EI, Ghorab DM, Zaghloul AA. Bioavailability assessment of vitamin A self-nanoemulsified drug delivery systems in rats: a comparative study. Med Princ Pract. 2007;16(5):355-359. https://doi.org/10.1159/000104808
55. 55. Praça FG, Viegas JSR, Peh HY, Garbin TN, Medina WSG, Bentley MVLB. Microemulsion co-delivering vitamin A and vitamin E as a new platform for topical treatment of acute skin inflammation. Mater Sci Eng C Mater Biol Appl. 2020; 110:110639. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.msec.2020.110639
56. 56. Imdad A, Herzer K, Mayo-Wilson E, Yakoob MY, Bhutta ZA. Vitamin A supplementation for preventing morbidity and mortality in children from 6 months to 5 years of age. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010;(12):CD008524. https://doi.org/ 10.1002/14651858.CD008524.pub2
57. 57. Jain P, Singh I, Surana SJ, Shirkhedkar AA. Tocopherols and tocotrienols: the essential vitamin E. In: Cazarin CBB, Bicas JL, Pastore GM, Marostica JM, editors. Bioactive Food Components Activity in Mechanistic Approach. Academic Press; 2022. p. 139-154. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/B978-0-12-823569-0.00009-6
58. 58. Zhang Z, Tan S, Feng SS. Vitamin E TPGS as a molecular biomaterial for drug delivery. Biomaterials. 2012;33(19):4889-4906. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2012.03.029
59. 59. Chen X, Gu J, Sun L, Li W, Guo L, Gu Z, Wang L, Zhang Y, Zhang W, Han B, Chang J. Efficient drug delivery and anticancer effect of micelles based on vitamin E succinate and chitosan derivatives. Bioact Mater. 2021 Oct;6(10):3025-35. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2021.03.029
60. 60. Vardi M, Levy NS, Levy AP. Vitamin E in the prevention of cardiovascular disease: the importance of proper patient selection. J Lipid Res. 2013 Sep;54(9):2307-14. https://doi.org/ 10.1194/jlr. R026641
61. 61. Deledda A, Annunziata G, Tenore GC, Palmas V, Manzin A, Velluzzi F. Diet-derived antioxidants and their role in inflammation, obesity, and gut microbiota modulation. Antioxidants (Basel). 2021;10(5):708. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox10050708
62. 62. Ali MY, Sina AAI, Khandker SS, Neesa L, Tanvir EM, Kabir A, Khalil MI, Gan SH. Nutritional composition and bioactive compounds in tomatoes and their impact on human health and disease: A review. Foods. 2021;10(1):45. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10010045
63. 63. Janabi AH, Kamboh AA, Saeed M, et al. Flavonoid-rich foods (FRF): A promising nutraceutical approach against lifespan-shortening diseases. Iran J Basic Med Sci. 2020;23(2):140–153. https://doi.org/10.22038/ijbms.2020.42307.10147
64. 64. Choy KW, Murugan D, Leong XF, et al. Flavonoids as natural anti-inflammatory agents targeting nuclear factor-kappa B (NFκB) signaling in cardiovascular diseases: A mini review. Front Pharmacol. 2019; 10:1295. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2019.01295
65. 65. Li M, Liu Y, Weigmann B. Biodegradable Polymeric Nanoparticles Loaded with Flavonoids: A Promising Therapy for Inflammatory Bowel Disease. Int J Mol Sci. 2023;24(5):4454. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24054454
66. 66. Tripathy S, Verma DK, Thakur M, Patel AR, Srivastav PP, Singh S, Gupta AK, Chavez-Gonzalez ML, Aguilar CN, Chakravorty N, Verma HK. Curcumin Extraction, Isolation, Quantification and Its Application in Functional Foods: A Review with a Focus on Immune Enhancement Activities and COVID-19. Front Nutr. 2021; 8:747956. https://doi.org/ 10.3389/fnut.2021.747956.
67. 67. Manojmouli C, Pasha TY, Nagaprashanth K, Ramesh B, Eain NU, Purushotham KN. Flavonoid derivatives as anticancer moiety and its effect on cancer cell lines: An updated review: Survey. J Serb Chem Soc. 2023;88(10):937-957. https://doi.org/10.2298/JSC221228041M
68. 68. He Y, Yue Y, Zheng X, Zhang K, Chen S, Du Z. Curcumin, inflammation, and chronic diseases: how are they linked? Molecules. 2015;20(5):9183-9213. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/molecules20059183
69. 69. Basnet P, Hussain H, Tho I, Skalko-Basnet N. Liposomal delivery system enhances anti-inflammatory properties of curcumin. J Pharm Sci. 2012;101(2):598-609. https://doi.org/ 10.1002/jps.23052
70. 70. Frei G, Haimhoffer Á, Csapó E, et al. In vitro and in vivo efficacy of topical dosage forms containing self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system loaded with curcumin. Pharmaceutics. 2023;15(8):2054. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/pharmaceutics15082054
71. 71. Mirończuk-Chodakowska I, Witkowska AM, Zujko ME. Endogenous non-enzymatic antioxidants in the human body. Adv Med Sci. 2018;63(1):68-78. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.advms.2017.12.003
72. 72. Hsu CH, Cheng AL. Clinical studies with curcumin. In: Aggarwal BB, Surh YJ, Shishodia S, editors. The Molecular Targets and Therapeutic Uses of Curcumin in Health and Disease. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, vol 595. Boston: Springer; 2007.
73. 73. Manojmouli C, Pasha TY, Nagaprashanth K, Ramesh B, Eain NU, Purushotham KN. Flavonoid derivatives as anticancer moiety and its effect on cancer cell lines: An updated review: Survey. J Serbian Chem Soc. 2023;88(10):937-57. https://doi.org/ 10.2298/JSC220608129M
74. 74. Tarocco A, Caroccia N, Morciano G, Wieckowski MR, Ancora G, Garani G, Pinton P. Melatonin as a master regulator of cell death and inflammation: molecular mechanisms and clinical implications for newborn care. Cell Death Dis. 2019;10(4):1-12. https://doi.org/ 10.1038/s41419-019-1444-x
75. 75. Li L, Gang X, Wang J, Gong X. Role of melatonin in respiratory diseases. Exp Ther Med. 2022;23(4):271. https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2022.11191
76. 76. Zhang HM, Zhang Y. Melatonin: a well-documented antioxidant with conditional pro-oxidant actions. J Pineal Res. 2014;57(2):131-146. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpi.12162
77. 77. Toczewska J, Zalewska A, Konopka T, Maciejczyk M. Enzymatic antioxidants activity in gingival crevicular fluid and saliva in advanced periodontitis. Oral Dis. 2023;29(8):3559-3570. https://doi.org/10.1111/odi.14287
78. 78. Jain N, Ramawat KG. Nutraceuticals and antioxidants in prevention of diseases. In: Ramawat KG, Mérillon JM, editors. Natural Products: Phytochemistry, Botany and Metabolism of Alkaloids and Other Nitrogen Compounds. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer; 2013. p. 2559–80.
79. 79. Xiong HH, Lin SY, Chen LL, Ouyang KH, Wang WJ. The interaction between flavonoids and intestinal microbes: a review. Foods. 2023; 12:320. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12020320
80. 80. Arulselvan P, Fard MT, Tan WS, Gothai S, Fakurazi S, Norhaizan ME, Kumar SS. Role of antioxidants and natural products in inflammation. Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2016; 2016:5276130. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/5276130
81. 81. Olendzki BC, Silverstein TD, Persuitte GM, Ma Y, Baldwin KR, Cave D. An anti-inflammatory diet as treatment for inflammatory bowel disease: a case series report. Nutr J. 2014;13(1):1-7. https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2891-13-14
82. 82. Katsimbri P, Korakas E, Kountouri A, Ikonomidis I, Tsougos E, Vlachos D, Papadavid E, Raptis A, Lambadiari V. The effect of antioxidant and anti-inflammatory capacity of diet on psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis phenotype: nutrition as therapeutic tool? Antioxidants. 2021;10(2):157. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox10020157
83. 83. Schönenberger KA, Schüpfer AC, Gloy VL, Hasler P, Stanga Z, Kaegi-Braun N, Reber E. Effect of anti-inflammatory diets on pain in rheumatoid arthritis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients. 2021;13(12):4221. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13124221
84. 84. Diluzio W, Nguyen PM, Varga CM, Palaniappan V, Brown J. Formulation for anti-α4β7 antibody. JP2020180163A. August 7, 2018.
85. 85. Papas AM. Diet and antioxidant status. In: Papas AM, editor. Antioxidant status, diet, nutrition, and health. 2019. p. 89-106
86. 86. Lü JM, Lin PH, Yao Q, Chen C. Chemical and molecular mechanisms of antioxidants: experimental approaches and model systems. J Cell Mol Med. 2010;14(4):840-860. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/j.1582-4934.2010.01027.x
87. 87. Iacobini C, Menini S, Ricci C, Scipioni A, Salvi L, Risuleo G, et al. Food-related carbonyl stress in cardiometabolic and cancer risk linked to unhealthy modern diet. Nutrients. 2022;14(5):1061. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14051061
88. 88. Losada-Barreiro S, Sanchez-Paz V, Bravo-Diaz C, Bastida S, Mourente G. Biochemistry of antioxidants: mechanisms and pharmaceutical applications. Biomedicines. 2022;10(12):3051. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines10123051
89. 89. Besora-Moreno M, Llauradó E, Tarro L, Solà R. Antioxidant-rich foods, antioxidant supplements, and sarcopenia in old-young adults ≥55 years old: A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies and randomized controlled trials. Clin Nutr. 2022;41(10):2308-2324. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2022.06.002
90. 90 . Luévano-Contreras C, Garay-Sevilla ME, Rojas A, Malacara JM. Dietary advanced glycation end products and cardiometabolic risk. Curr Diab Rep. 2017;17:1-11. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s11892-017-0904-2.
91. 91. Ahire ED, Parmar KB, Choudhary VK. Role of omega-3 fatty acids in different neurodegenerative disorders. In: Kumar SS, editor. Applied Pharmaceutical Science and Microbiology. Apple Academic Press; 2020. p. 173-194.
92. 92. Nani A, Murtaza B, Khan AS, Khan MK, Hichami A, Benammar C. Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential of polyphenols contained in Mediterranean diet in obesity: Molecular mechanisms. Molecules. 2021;26(4):985. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26040985.
93. 93. Boosalis MG. The role of selenium in chronic disease. Nutr Clin Pract. 2008;23(2):152-160. https://doi.org/10.1177/0884533608314532
94. 94. Lyu YL, Gao Y, Wang S, Xu Y, Zhang M, Zhao J. Biological activities underlying the therapeutic effect of quercetin on inflammatory bowel disease. Mediators Inflamm. 2022;2022:5665778. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/5665778
95. 95. Francescangeli F, De Angelis ML, Zeuner A. Dietary factors in the control of gut homeostasis, intestinal stem cells, and colorectal cancer. Nutrients. 2019;11(12):2936. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11122936
96. 96. Buck R, Duska-McEwen GO, Schaller JP. Nutritional formulations including human milk oligosaccharides and antioxidants and uses thereof. US11464793B2. 2020.
97. 97. Zielinski T, Russell M, Moon E, Allen EP. Antioxidant compositions for treatment of inflammation or oxidative damage. US10918613B2. 2016.
98. 98. Myhill PR, Driscoll WJ. Compositions for alleviating inflammation and oxidative stress in a mammal. US8435574B2. 2012.
99. 99. Xin J, Jiang J, Greiner JL, Lester M, Maravetz S, Szucs SS, et al. Antioxidant inflammation modulators: novel derivatives of oleanolic acid. US8338618B2. December 25, 2012
100. 100. Bhagat U. Optimized nutritional formulations, methods for selection of tailored diets therefrom, and methods of use thereof. CA2814053C. 2020.