When Angels Misbehaved: Justiciability of the United Nations for the Cholera Outbreak in Hait

Abstract

The justiciability of international organizations has recently sparked considerable debate and interest. Among these comes the debate whether the United Nations (UN) was acting within its rights when hiding behind its immunity in the Cholera Outbreak in Haiti. Another point of contention is whether immunity is necessary vel non for the independence of the UN from member states, even in extreme cases where human rights are violated. In this paper, the justiciability of the UN is discussed over the concepts of immunity, autonomy, and responsibility of international organizations along with the moral obligations of the UN and the effective use of the alternative systems to compensate victims. The UN’s role resembles that of God, as He bears no responsibility for His actions besides being above law. Similarly, troops or personnel participating in UN operations are expected to work for the good of humanity, such as angels. Nevertheless, the UN angels sometimes commit violations or cause damage, which stimulates further discussion of the matter. To put these theoretical questions and metaphors into practice, the Cholera Outbreak in Haiti is chosen as it provides a contemporary example that is a developing story paving the way for understanding the immunity, responsibility, and justiciability of the UN. In this article, the immunity of the UN has been analyzed along with that of other international organizations to demonstrate the special position of the UN. Finally, a waiver of immunity was tested with some extreme examples in which violations of human rights and jus cogens norms were involved.

Keywords

• Immunity of The United Nations
• Responsibility of International Organizations
• Autonomy of the UN
• Justiciability of the UN
• Waiver of Immunity

Melekler Hata Yapınca: Birleşmiş Milletler’in Haiti’deki Kolera Salgını Sebebiyle Yargılanabilirliği

Abstract

Birleşmiş Milletler Teşkilatı da dahil olmak üzere, uluslararası örgütlerin yargılanabilirliği önemli miktarda akademik tartışmayı beraberinde getirmiştir. Bunlar arasında, Birleşmiş Milletler’in Haiti’deki kolera salgınındaki tutumu ve karşılaştığı iddialar da mevcuttur. Acaba Birleşmiş Milletler yargı bağışıklığından feragat etmemekle hukuka uygun mu davranmıştır? Bir başka nokta-i nazar ise bağışıklığın Birleşmiş Milletler’in üye devletlerden bağımsız olabilmesini temin ettiği ve gerekli olduğu yönündedir. Buna göre, Birleşmiş Milletler’in yargı bağışıklığı Haiti kolera salgınında ve başka uç örneklerde olduğu gibi daima gereklidir ve feragat edilemez niteliktedir. Bu çalışmada Birleşmiş Milletler’in yargılanabilirliği, feragat ve işlevsellik açısından bağışıklık, hukuki sorumluluk, bağımsızlık gibi kavramlar üzerinden çok yönlü olarak ele alınmak suretiyle uluslararası hukuk bakımından incelenmiş ve BM’nin alternatif zarar giderim yollarını etkin kullanması ve gerektiği takdirde yargı bağışıklığından feragat etmesi gereği değerlendirilmiştir. Bağışıklık zırhının ardına sığınan ve böylece hukuki sorumluluğu bertaraf eden Birleşmiş Milletler’in bu durumu layüsel ve hukukun üstünde bulunması bakımından Tanrı’ya ve insanlığın yararına çalıştıkları ön kabulünden hareketle Birleşmiş Milletler operasyonlarına katılan kişilerin durumu da meleklere benzetilmiştir. Bu çalışmada Birleşmiş Milletler adına çalışırken ihlalleri gerçekleştirenler Melek metaforuyla karşılandığı için çalışmanın adında bu metafor tercih edilmiştir. Bu teorik benzetmeler ve sorulara uygulamada işaret edebilmek için bu makalede Birleşmiş Milletler’in bağışıklık, sorumluluk ve yargılanabilirliği konularına benzer durum ve davalar bakımından dair duruşuna ışık tutan ve gelişmekte olan güncel bir mesele olarak Haiti örneği tercih edilmiştir. Makalede Milletlerin bağışıklığı diğer uluslararası örgütlerin bağışıklığı karşılaştırmalı olarak incelenmiş olup Birleşmiş Milletler’in bu konudaki özel konumu ortaya konmaya çalışılmıştır. Ayrıca, bağışıklıktan feragat meselesi insan haklarının ve ius cogens normların ihlal edildiği örneklerle ele alınmıştır.

Keywords

• Birleşmiş Milletlerin Yargı Muafiyeti
• Uluslararası Örgütlerin Sorumluluğu
• Birleşmiş Milletlerin Bağımsızlığı
• Birleşmiş Milletlerin Yargılanabilirliği
• Bağışıklıktan Feragat

References

1. Akbar ZA, ‘Problems with and Solutions for the Absolute Immunity of the UN’ in Emel Parlar Dal et al (eds), Global Governance, Security and Actors: UN at 70 (TASAM Yayınları 2016). google scholar Akehust MB, The Law Governing Employment in International Organizations (Cambridge University Press 1967). google scholar
2. Aral B, ‘The Conundrum about the United Nations Security Council: A Guardian of Peace or Cause for Concern?’ (2010) 3 EJEPS 163. google scholar
3. Bothe M and Dörschel T, ‘The UN Peacekeeping Experience’ in Dieter Fleck (ed), The Handbook of the Law of Visiting Forces (Oxford University Press 2003). google scholar
4. Brownlie I, Principles of Public International Law (Oxford University Press 2003). google scholar
5. Carrion AJR, ‘United Nations Force in Cyprus: Uncertain Case of Peace-keeping’ in Antonio Cassese (ed), United Nations Peace-keeping: Legal Essays (Sijthoff and Noordhoff Publishers 1978). google scholar
6. Chesterman S, Johnstone I and Malone DM, Law and Practice of the United Nations: Documents and Commentary (Oxford University Press 2016). google scholar
7. Crawford J and Olleson S, ‘The Nature and Forms of International Responsibility’ in Malcom D. Evans (ed), International Law (Oxford University Press 2010). google scholar
8. De Wet E, ‘From Kadi to Nada: Judicial Techniques Favouring Human Rights over United Nations Security Council Sanctions’ (2013) 12 CJIL787. google scholar

9. De Wet E, Chapter VII Powers of the United Nations Security Council (Hart Publishing 2004). google scholar
10. Department of Peacekeeping Operations, United Nations Peacekeeping Operations: Principles and Guidelines (2008). google scholar
11. Diehl PF, International Peacekeeping (John Hopkins University Press 1993). google scholar
12. Einsiedel S and Malone DM (eds), Haiti in the UN Security Council: From the Cold War to the 21st Century (Lynne Reinner Publishers 2004). google scholar
13. Fassbender B, The United Nations Charter as the Constitution of the International Community (Martinus Nijhoff 2009). google scholar
14. Feinaugle CA, ‘The UN Declaration on the Rule of Law and the Application of the Rule of Law to the UN: A Reconstruction from an International Public Authority Perspective’ (2016) 7 GJIL 157. google scholar
15. Freedman R, ‘UN Immunity or Impunity? A Human Rights Based Challenge’ (2014) 25 EJIL 239. google scholar
16. Ghebali VY, ‘United Nations Reform Proposals since the End of the Cold War’ in Maurice Bertrand and Daniel Warner, A New Charter for a Worldwide Organisation? (Kluwer Law International 1997). google scholar
17. Goodrich LM, Hambro E and Simons AP (eds), Charter of the United Nations: Commentary and Documents (Colombia University Press 1969). google scholar
18. Gray C, ‘The Use of Force and the International Legal Order’ in Malcom D Evans (ed) International Law (Oxford University Press 2010). google scholar
19. Gündüzler U, ‘United Nations Convention on Law of Sea as A Mixed Treaty of EU: A Headache for Turkey?’ (2013) 12 AAÇD 61. google scholar
20. Higgins R, Legal Consequences for Member States for the Non-Fulfillment by International Organization of their Obligations towards their Parties (1995) 66(1) AIDI 254. google scholar
21. Holt TF, ‘Sovereign Immunity: A Statutory Approach to a Persistent Problem’ (1977) 1 BCICLJ 223. google scholar
22. James AM, ‘Unit Veto Dominance in UN Peace-Keeping’ in Lawrance S. Finkelstein (ed), Politics in the United Nations System (Duke University Press 1988). google scholar
23. Jay AR, ‘The European Convention of Human Rights and the Black Hole of State Responsibility’ (2014-2015) 47 NYUJILP 207. google scholar
24. Johansen RC, ‘Enhancing United Nations Peace-Keeping’ in Chadwick F Alger, The future of the United Nations System: Potential for the Twenty-first Century (United Nations University Press 1998). google scholar
25. Joyner CC, ‘The United Nations as International Law-Giver’ in Christopher C. Joyner (ed), The United Nations and International Law (Cambridge University Press 1997). google scholar
26. Katayanagi M, Human Rights Functions of United Nations Peacekeeping Operations (Martinus Nijhoff Publishers 2002). google scholar
27. Klabbers J, An Introduction to International Organizations Law (3rd edn, Cambridge University Press 2015). google scholar
28. Klein P, La responsabilite des Organisations Internationales dans les Ordres Juridiques Internes et en Droit des Gens (Editions Bruylant 1998). google scholar
29. Kokott J and Sobotta C, ‘The Kadi Case - Constitutional Core Values and International Law -Finding the Balance?’ (2012) 23 EJIL 1015. google scholar
30. Kul MC, Exploring the Anatomy of the Syrian Armed Conflicts (Adalet Yayınları 2020). google scholar
31. Kul MC, Uluslararası Hukukta Kuvvetler Statüsü Anlaşmaları (Status of Forces Agreements in International Law) (On Iki Levha Yayıncılık 2020). google scholar
32. Larsen KM, Human Rights Treaty obligations of Peacekeepers (Cambridge University Press 2012). google scholar
33. Laurenti J, ‘Financing the United Nations’ in Jean A Krasino (ed), The United Nations: Confronting the Challenges of a Global Society (Lynne Reinner Publishers 2004). google scholar
34. Malone D, Decision-Making in the UN Security Council: The Case of Haiti 1990-1997 (Clarendon Press 1998). google scholar
35. Mecelle-i Ahkam-ı Adliyye (Seçkin Yayıncılık 2019). google scholar
36. Michos-Ederer E, ‘Conflicts, Cyprus’ in Rüdiger Wolfrum (ed), United Nations: Law, Policies and Practice (Martinus Nijhoff Publishers 1995) vol 1. google scholar
37. Nadin P, UN Security Council Reform (Routledge 2016). google scholar
38. Piarroux R et al, ‘Understanding the Cholera Epidemic, Haiti’ (2011) 17 EID 1161. google scholar
39. Rashkow BC, Immunity of the United Nations: Practice and Challenges (2013) 10 IOLR 332. google scholar
40. Sarooshi D, The United Nations and the Development of Collective Security (Clarendon Press 1999). google scholar
41. Schrijver N, ‘Beyond Srebrenica and Haiti: Exploring Alternative Remedies against the United Nations’ (2013) 10 IOLR 588. google scholar
42. Siekmann RCR, ‘The Legal Responsibility of Military Personnel’ in Charlotte Ku and Harold K. Jacobson (eds), Democratic Accountability and the Use of Force in International Law (Cambridge University Press 2003). google scholar
43. Simma B et al (eds), The Charter of the United Nations: A Commentary (Oxford University Press 2002) vol 2. google scholar
44. United Nations, The Blue Helmets: A Review of United Nations Peace-keeping (2nd edn, United Nations Publications 1996). google scholar
45. Weissberg G, The International Status of the United Nations (Oceana Publications 1961). google scholar
46. Wellens K, Remedies Against International Organisations (Cambridge University Press 2002). google scholar
47. White G, ‘The Principle of Good Faith’ in Vaughlan Lowe and Colin Warbrick (eds), The United Nations and the Principles of International Law (Routledge 1994). google scholar
48. White ND, Law of International Organisations (3rd edn, Manchester University Press 2017). google scholar
49. Zwanenburg M, Accountability of Peace Support Operations (Martinus Nijhoff Publishers 2005). google scholar
50. Ax J, ‘US urges judge to dismiss cholera lawsuit against United Nations’ (The Guardian, 23 October 2014) accessed 9 February 2023. google scholar
51. Beaumont P, ‘Trump threatens to cut aid to countries over UN Jerusalem vote’ (The Guardian, 21 December 2017) accessed 24 February 2023. google scholar
52. Chossudovsky M, ‘US Sponsored Coup d’Etat: The Destabilization of Haiti’ (Global Research, 26 February 2013) accessed 9 February 2023. google scholar
53. Dedeoğlu B, ‘The world is bigger than 5’ (Daily Sabah, 28 September 2016) https://www. dailysabah.com/columns/beril-dedeoglu/2016/09/28/the-world-is-bigger-than-5 (accessed 9 February 2023). google scholar
54. Haiti United Nations Documents accessed 7 June 2023. google scholar
55. ‘Haiti: $720 million plan to support millions facing gangs, hunger and cholera’ (UN News, 14 April 2023) accessed 9 February 2023. google scholar
56. Harris B, ‘Congress threatens to cut UN funding for voting against Israel’ (Al Monitor, 27 March 2017) accessed 24 February 2023. google scholar
57. ‘History of Haiti’ (One World Nations Online) accessed 9 February 2023. google scholar
58. Human Rights Watch, Sexual Violence in the Sierra Leone Conflict: We'll Kill You If You Cry (2003) Vol 15 accessed 9 February 2023. google scholar
59. Lall RR and Pilkington E, ‘UN will not compensate Haiti cholera victims, Ban Ki-moon tells president’ (The Guardian, 21 February 2013) accessed 26 July 2023. google scholar
60. Lindstrom B, ‘Seeking overdue reparations for UN-caused devastation in Haiti’ (Harward Law Today, 24 June 2020) accessed July 2023. google scholar
61. Nichos M, ‘UN chief: Moral responsibility to help Haiti cholera victims’ (Reuters, 19 August 2016) accessed 22 July 2023. google scholar
62. Report of the United Nations in Haiti 2010 Situation: Challenges and Outlook, accessed 9 February 2023. google scholar
63. Sengupta S, ‘UN Votes Unanimously to End Peacekeeping Mission in Haiti’ (The New York Times, 13 April 2017) accessed 9 February 2023. google scholar
64. Separate Opinion of Judge Lauterpact on the Application of Genocide Convention www.icj-cij.org/public/files/case-related/91/091-19930913-ORD-01-05-EN.pdf> accessed 25 September 2023. google scholar
65. The United Nations Treaty Collection, Status of Treaties, accessed 14 May 2023. google scholar
66. ‘UN Accepts Blame but Dodges the Bill in Haiti’ (The New York Times, 21 March 2017) www.nytimes.com/2017/03/21/opinion/un-accepts-blame-but-dodges-the-bill-in-haiti. html?emc=edit_th_20170321&nl=todaysheadlines&nlid=26585494&referer=> accessed 25 September 2023. google scholar
67. United Nations Peacekeeping, ‘United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus’ accessed 9 February 2023. google scholar
68. US Department of State Office of the Historian, ‘Intervention in Haiti, 1994-1995’ accessed 7 June 2023. google scholar
69. Accord entre l’Organisation des Nations Unies et le Gouvernement haıtien concernant le statut de l’operation des Nations Unies en Haiti (entree en vigueur 9 juillet 2004) 2271 UNTS 235. google scholar
70. International Law Commission DraftArticles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts (2001) accessed 9 February 2023. google scholar
71. International Law Commission Draft Articles on the Responsibility of International Organizations (2011) accessed 9 February 2023. google scholar
72. Model Status-of-Forces Agreement for Peacekeeping Operations (9 October 1990) UN Doc A/45/594. google scholar
73. The Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations (adopted 13 Feb 1946, entered into force17 September 1946) 1 UNTS 15. google scholar
74. Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties between States and International Organizations or between International Organizations (adopted 21 March 1986, not yet in force) accessed 9 February 2023. google scholar
75. Charter of the United Nations (signed 26 June 1945, entered into force17 24 October 1945) 1 UNTS XVI. google scholar
76. Agim Behrami and Bekir Behrami v France App no 71412/01 (ECtHR, 02 May 2007). google scholar
77. Al Jedda v UK App no 27021/08 (ECtHR, 07 July 2011). google scholar
78. Askir v Boutros-Ghali 933 F Supp 368 (SDNY 1996). google scholar
79. Brzak v United Nations Docket no 08/2799 (2d Cir 2010). google scholar
80. Delema Georges v United Nations (The United States District Court, Sothern District of New York, 09 January 2015). google scholar
81. Difference Relating to Immunity from Legal Process of a Special Rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights (Advisory Opinion) [1999] ICJ Rep 62. google scholar
82. Groupement d’Entreprises Fougerolle et consorts c CERN (1ere Cour de droit civile du Tribunal federal Suisse, 21 decembre 1992) 102 ILR 20. google scholar
83. Joined Cases C-402/05 P and C-415/05 P Yassin Abdullah Kadi and Al Barakaat International Foundation v Council and Commission [2008] ECR I-6351. google scholar
84. Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (Southwest Africa) notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970), (Namibia Opinion) 1971 accessed 9 February 2023. google scholar
85. Manderlier c Organisation des Nations Unies et l’Etat Belge (ministere des Affaires etrangeres), (Cour d’appel de Bruxelles, 15 septembre 1969) 69 ILR 139. google scholar
86. Nada v Switzerland App no 10537/08 (ECtHR, 12 September 2012). google scholar
87. Reparation for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations (Advisory Opinion) [1949] ICJ Rep 174. google scholar
88. Stichting Mothers of Srebrenica and Others v The Netherlands App no 65542/12 (ECtHR, 27 June 2013). google scholar
89. The State of Netherlands v Hasan Nuhanovic App no 12/03324 (Supreme Court of the Netherlands, 6 September 2013). google scholar
90. UNGA Res 52/247 (17 July 1998) UN Doc A/RES/52/247. google scholar
91. UNGA Res 71/161 (16 December 2016) UN Doc A/RES/71/161. google scholar
92. UNGA Res 71/161 B (18 July 2017) UN Doc A/RES/71/161 B. google scholar
93. UNGA Res 71/367 (26 August 2016) UN Doc A/71/367. google scholar
94. UNGA Res ES-10/19 (21 December 2017) UN Doc A/RES/ES-10/19. google scholar
95. UNSC Res 875 (16 October 1993) UN Doc S/RES/875. google scholar
96. UNSC Res 940 (31 July 1994) UN Doc S/RES/940. google scholar
97. UNSC Res 1908 (19 January 2010) UN Doc S/RES/1908. google scholar