Development and validation of the Tamil Inclusive Classroom Management Self-Efficacy (TICMSE) scale

Abstract

Assessing preservice teachers' inclusive classroom management self-efficacy (ICMSE) is critical for effectively implementing classroom management practices. Although the literature provides well-established instruments, many do not cover all domains of ICMSE. Above all, there is a notable absence of instruments assessing this multidimensional construct in Tamil, one of the native languages of Sri Lanka. This paper comprehensively reports the methodological aspects of developing and validating the Tamil Inclusive Classroom Management Self-Efficacy (TICMSE) Scale. The main purpose of this study is to investigate whether the TICMSE Scale effectively captures the multidimensional nature of the construct of ICMSE. Specifically, the study examines whether the author-generated items accurately represent the hypothesized, a priori four-factor structure of the scale. A convenience sample of 200 preservice teachers enrolled in teacher education institutions in Sri Lanka participated in an online survey. Exploratory Factor Analysis was conducted to extract the data, resulting in a four-factor solution. Confirmatory Factor Analysis further confirmed the proposed structure. The psychometric properties of the TICMSE scale, including composite reliability, internal consistency, and convergent and discriminant validity, were established. These findings warrant the ongoing utilization of this scale as a reliable and factorially valid instrument for objectively measuring different dimensions of ICMSE, especially among Tamil preservice teachers in Sri Lanka.

Keywords

• Classroom management
• Self-Efficacy
• Preservice teachers
• Inclusive education
• Scale development
• Validation

References

1. Aas, H.K., Uthus, M., & Løhre, A. (2024). Inclusive education for students with challenging behaviour: Development of teachers’ beliefs and ideas for adaptations through lesson study. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 39(1), 64 78. https://doi.org/10.1080/08856257.2023.2191107
2. Ainscow, M., & Miles, S. (2009). Developing inclusive education systems: How can we move policies forward? In C. Giné, J.M. Suriá, & M. Belda (Eds.), Educación inclusiva: De la exclusión a la plena participación de todo el alumnado [Inclusive education: From exclusion to full participation of all students] (pp. 13–23). Universitat de València.
3. Alter, P., & Haydon, T. (2017). Characteristics of effective classroom rules: A review of the literature. Teacher Education and Special Education, 40(2), 114 127. https://doi.org/10.1177/0888406417700962
4. Alter, P., Walker, J., & Landers, E. (2013). Teachers’ perceptions of students’ challenging behavior and the impact of teacher demographics. Education and Treatment of Children, 36(4), 51–70. https://doi.org/10.1353/etc.2013.0040
5. Armor, D., Conry-Oseguera, P., Cox, M., King, N., McDonnell, L., Pascal, A., Pauly, E., & Zellman, G. (1976). Analysis of the school preferred reading program in selected Los Angeles minority schools (Report No. R 2007 LAUSD). RAND Corporation. https://www.rand.org/pubs/reports/R2007.html
6. Ashton, P.T., Webb, R., & Doda, N. (1983). A study of teachers’ sense of efficacy (Report No. ED231833). U.S. Department of Education, National Institute of Education, Educational Resources Information Center.
7. Ayre, C., & Scally, A.J. (2014). Critical values for Lawshe’s content validity ratio. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 47(1), 79 86. https://doi.org/10.1177/0748175613513808
8. Baker, P.H. (2005). Managing student behaviour: How ready are teachers to meet the challenge? American Secondary Education, 33(3), 51–64.

9. Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191-215. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191
10. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.
11. Bandura, A. (n.d.). Teacher self-efficacy scale. https://bit.ly/3HaBWIU
12. Bentler, P.M., & Bonnet, D.C. (1980). Significance tests and goodness of fit in the analysis of covariance structures. Psychological Bulletin, 88(3), 588 606. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.88.3.588
13. Bentler, P.M., & Chou, C.P. (1987). Practical issues in structural modeling. Sociological Methods & Research, 16(1), 78–117. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124187016001004
14. Betoret, F.D. (2009). Self-efficacy, school resources, job stressors and burnout among Spanish primary and secondary school teachers: A structural equation approach. Educational Psychology, 29, 45–68. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410802459234
15. Boateng, G.O., Neilands, T.B., Frongillo, E.A., Melgar-Quiñonez, H.R., & Young, S.L. (2018). Best practices for developing and validating scales for health, social, and behavioral research: A primer. Frontiers in Public Health, 6, 149. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2018.00149
16. Briggs, N.E., & MacCallum, R.C. (2003). Recovery of weak common factors by maximum likelihood and ordinary least squares estimation. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 38(1), 25–56. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327906MBR3801_2
17. Briggs, S.R., & Cheek, J.M. (1986). The role of factor analysis in the development and evaluation of personality scales. Journal of Personality, 54(1), 106 148. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1986.tb00391.x
18. Brophy, J. (1982). Classroom organization and management. The Institute for Research on Teaching, Michigan State University.
19. Brophy, J.E. (2006). History of research in classroom management. In C.M. Evertson & C.S. Weinstein (Eds.), Handbook of classroom management: Research, practice, and contemporary issues (pp. 17–43). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
20. Brouwers, A., & Tomic, W. (1999). The factorial validity of the teacher interpersonal self-efficacy scale (No. SP038950) [ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED437365]. Netherlands Open University. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED437365
21. Brouwers, A., & Tomic, W. (2000). A longitudinal study of teacher burnout and perceived self-efficacy in classroom management. Teaching and Teacher Education, 16(2), 239–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0742-051X(99)00057-8
22. Brouwers, A., & Tomic, W. (2001). The factorial validity of scores on the teacher interpersonal self-efficacy scale. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 61(3), 433–445. https://doi.org/10.1177/00131640121971356
23. Brown, T.A. (2015). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research (2nd ed.). The Guilford Press.
24. Byrne, B.M. (2010). Structural equation modeling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming (2nd ed.). Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.
25. Cheung, G.W., Cooper-Thomas, H.D., Lau, R.S., & Wang, L.C. (2024). Reporting reliability, convergent and discriminant validity with structural equation modeling: A review and best-practice recommendations. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 41(3), 745 783. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-023-09871-y
26. Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2007). Research methods in education (6th ed.). Routledge.
27. Costello, A.B., & Osborne, J.W. (2005). Best practices in exploratory factor analysis: Four recommendations for getting the most from your analysis. Practical Assessment, Research, and Evaluation, 10(7), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.7275/jyj1-4868
28. Curran, P.J., West, S.G., & Finch, J.F. (1996). The robustness of test statistics to nonnormality and specification error in confirmatory factor analysis. Psychological Methods, 1(1), 16–29. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.1.1.16
29. De Silva, P.V., Hewage, C.G., & Fonseka, P. (2015). Prevalence of burnout and its correlates among female primary school teachers in the Southern Province of Sri Lanka. European Journal of Preventive Medicine, 3(2 1), 9 14. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ejpm.s.2015030201.13
30. DeVellis, R.F. (2017). Scale development: Theory and application (4th ed.). Sage Publications.
31. Dicke, T., Parker, P.D., Marsh, H.W., Kunter, M., Schmeck, A., & Leutner, D. (2014). Self-efficacy in classroom management, classroom disturbances, and emotional exhaustion: A moderated mediation analysis of teacher candidates. Journal of Educational Psychology. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035504
32. Doyle, W. (1986). Classroom organization and management. In M. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (3rd ed., pp. 392–431). Macmillan.
33. Eisenman, G., Edwards, S., & Cushman, C.A. (2015). Bringing reality to classroom management in teacher education. Professional Educator, 39(1). https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1062280
34. Emmer, E., Evertson, C., & Anderson, L. (1980). Effective classroom management at the beginning of the school year. The Elementary School Journal, 80(5), 219 231. https://doi.org/10.1086/461192
35. Evertson, C., & Poole, I. (2008). Proactive classroom management. In T. Good (Ed.), 21st century education: A reference handbook (pp. I-131–I-140). SAGE Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412964012.n14
36. Fabrigar, L.R., Wegener, D.T., MacCallum, R.C., & Strahan, E.J. (1999). Evaluating the use of exploratory factor analysis in psychological research. Psychological Methods, 4(3), 272–299. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.4.3.272
37. Field, A. (2013). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics (4th ed.). SAGE Publications.
38. Friedman, I.A., & Kass, E. (2002). Teacher self-efficacy: A classroom-organization conceptualization. Teaching and Teacher Education, 18(6), 675 686. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0742-051X(02)00027-6
39. Garrote, A., Felder, F., Krähenmann, H., Schnepel, S., Sermier Dessemontet, R., & Moser Opitz, E. (2020). Social acceptance in inclusive classrooms: The role of teacher attitudes toward inclusion and classroom management. Frontiers in Education, 5, Article 582873. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2020.582873
40. Gefen, D., Straub, D., & Boudreau, M. (2000). Structural equation modeling and regression: Guidelines for research practice. Communications of the Association for Information Systems, 4, 1–78. https://doi.org/10.17705/1CAIS.00407
41. Goss, P., Sonnemann, J., & Griffiths, K. (2017). Engaging students: Creating classrooms that improve learning. Grattan Institute. https://bit.ly/3EXn2VX
42. Guadagnoli, E., & Velicer, W.F. (1988). Relation of sample size to the stability of component patterns. Psychological Bulletin, 103(2), 265–275. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.103.2.265
43. Güner-Yıldız, N., Köse, H., & Akın, E. (2022). Classroom management: Significance in inclusive education, current problems and proposed solutions. Ankara University Faculty of Educational Sciences Journal of Special Education, 23(3), 699 720. https://doi.org/10.21565/ozelegitimdergisi.856085
44. Guo, Y., Connor, C.M., Yang, Y., Roehrig, A.D., & Morrison, F.J. (2012). The effects of teacher qualification, teacher self-efficacy, and classroom practices on fifth graders' literacy outcomes. The Elementary School Journal, 113(1), 3–24. https://doi.org/10.1086/665816
45. Guskey, T.R. (1986, April 16–20). Context variables that affect measures of teacher efficacy [Paper presentation]. Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, CA, United States. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED269398
46. Guskey, T.R., & Passaro, P.D. (1994). Teacher efficacy: A study of construct dimensions. American Educational Research Journal, 31(3), 627 643. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312031003627
47. Hair, J.F., Black, W.C., Babin, B.J., & Anderson, R.E. (2010). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed.). Pearson Education Limited.
48. Hair, J.F., Black, W.C., Babin, B.J., & Anderson, R.E. (2014). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed., Pearson New International Edition). Pearson Education Limited.
49. Hair, J.F., Black, W.C., Babin, B.J., & Anderson, R.E. (2019). Multivariate data analysis (8th ed.). Cengage Learning.
50. Hair, J.F., Jr., Hult, G.T.M., Ringle, C.M., & Sarstedt, M. (2017). A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) (2nd ed.). SAGE Publications.
51. Henseler, J., Ringle, C.M., & Sarstedt, M. (2015). A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 43, 115–135. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-014-0403-8
52. Hooper, D., Coughlan, J., & Mullen, M.R. (2008). Structural equation modelling: Guidelines for determining model fit. Journal of Business Research Methods, 6, 53–60.
53. Hoy, W.K., & Woolfolk, A.E. (1993). Teachers’ sense of efficacy and the organizational health of schools. The Elementary School Journal, 93(4), 355–372. https://doi.org/10.1086/461729
54. Hu, L.T., & Bentler, P.M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
55. Kaiser, H.F. (1974). An index of factorial simplicity. Psychometrika, 39(1), 31–36. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02291575
56. Kaplan, A., Gheen, M., & Midgley, C. (2002). Classroom goal structure and student disruptive behaviour. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 72(1), 191 211. https://doi.org/10.1348/000709902158847
57. Kline, R.B. (2016). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (4th ed.). Guilford Press.
58. Korpershoek, H., Harms, T., de Boer, H., van Kuijk, M., & Doolaard, S. (2016). A meta-analysis of the effects of classroom management strategies and classroom management programs on students’ academic, behavioral, emotional, and motivational outcomes. Review of Educational Research, 86(3), 643–680. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315626799
59. Korpershoek, H., Mouw, J., & de Boer, H. (2022). International research on the foci and effectiveness of classroom management programs and strategies. In E.J. Sabornie & D.L. Espelage (Eds.), Handbook of classroom management (3rd ed., pp. 350–372). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003275312-22
60. Kutner, M.H., Nachtsheim, C.J., Neter, J., & Li, W. (2004). Applied linear statistical models (5th ed.). McGraw-Hill.
61. Lamm, K.W., Lamm, A.J., & Edgar, D. (2020). Scale development and validation: Methodology and recommendations. Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education, 27(2), 24–35. https://doi.org/10.4148/2831-5960.1115
62. Landis, J.R., & Koch, G.G. (1977). An application of hierarchical kappa-type statistics in the assessment of majority agreement among multiple observers. Biometrics, 33, 363–374. https://doi.org/10.2307/2529786
63. Lawshe, C.H. (1975). Content validity. Personnel Psychology, 28, 563 575. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.1975.tb01393.x
64. Lazarides, R., Watt, H.M.G., & Richardson, P.W. (2020). Teachers’ classroom management self-efficacy, perceived classroom management, and teaching contexts from beginning until mid career. Learning and Instruction, 69, 101346. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2020.101346
65. MacCallum, R.C., Widaman, K.F., Preacher, K.J., & Hong, S. (2001). Sample size in factor analysis: The role of model error. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 36(4), 611–637. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327906MBR3604_06
66. Main, S., & Hammond, L. (2008). Best practice or most practiced? Pre-service teachers’ beliefs about effective behaviour management strategies and reported self-efficacy. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 33(4). https://doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2008v33n4.3
67. Malkewitz, C.P., Schwall, P., Meesters, C., & Hardt, J. (2023). Estimating reliability: A comparison of Cronbach’s α, McDonald’s ωₜ, and the greatest lower bound. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 7, 100368. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2022.100368
68. Marzano, R.J., Marzano, J.S., & Pickering, D.J. (2003). Classroom management that works: Research-based strategies for every teacher. ASCD.
69. Matas-Terrón, A., Aranda, L., Franco-Caballero, P.D., & Mena-Rodríguez, E. (2024). Attitudes towards research methods in education: Development of the ATRMQ scale. Education Sciences, 14(374). https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14040374
70. Meijer, C.J.W., & Foster, S.F. (1988). The effect of teacher self-efficacy on referral chance. Journal of Special Education, 22, 378–385. https://doi.org/10.1177/002246698802200309
71. Milner, H.R., & Tenore, F.B. (2010). Classroom management in diverse classrooms. Urban Education, 45(5), 560–603. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042085910377290
72. Oliver, R.M., & Reschly, D.J. (2007). Effective classroom management: Teacher preparation and professional development. In E.J. Sabornie & D.L. Espelage (Eds.), Handbook of classroom management (pp. 127–150). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
73. Oliver, R.M., Wehby, J.H., & Reschly, D.J. (2011). Teacher classroom management practices: Effects on disruptive or aggressive student behavior. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 4. https://doi.org/10.4073/csr.2011.4
74. O'Neill, S.C. (2015). Preparing preservice teachers for inclusive classrooms: Does completing coursework on managing challenging behaviours increase their classroom management sense of efficacy? Australasian Journal of Special Education. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1017/jse.2015.10
75. O'Neill, S.C., & Stephenson, J. (2011). The measurement of classroom management self‐efficacy: A review of measurement instrument development and influences. Educational Psychology, 31(3), 261–299. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2010.545344
76. Osborne, J.W. (2014). Best practices in exploratory factor analysis. CreateSpace Independent Publishing. ISBN-13: 978-1500594343, ISBN-10:1500594342.
77. Page, A., & Jones, M. (2018). Rethinking teacher education for classroom behaviour management: Investigation of an alternative model using an online professional experience in an Australian university. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 43(11), 84–104. https://doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2018v43n11.5
78. Peters, J.H. (2012). Are they ready? Final year pre-service teachers’ learning about managing student behaviour. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 37(9), 18 42. https://doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2012v37n9.2
79. Polit, D.F., Beck, C.T., & Owen, S.V. (2007). Is the CVI an acceptable indicator of content validity? Appraisal and recommendations. Research in Nursing and Health, 30(4), 459–467. https://doi.org/10.1002/nur.20199
80. Polit, D.F., & Beck, C.T. (2006). The content validity index: Are you sure you know what's being reported? Critique and recommendations. Research in Nursing & Health, 29(5), 489–497. https://doi.org/10.1002/nur.20147
81. Putman, S.M. (2013). Measuring practicing and prospective elementary teachers’ beliefs: Development and validation of the efficacy for classroom management scale. Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 59(3), 420 441. https://doi.org/10.55016/ojs/ajer.v59i3.55732
82. Rotter, J.B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 80(1), 1 28. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0092976
83. Samuels, P. (2017). Advice on exploratory factor analysis. ResearchGate. https://bit.ly/3S9zWmK
84. Sciuchetti, M.B., & Yssel, N. (2019). The development of preservice teachers’ self-efficacy for classroom and behavior management across multiple field experiences. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 44(6), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2018v44n6.2
85. Shapiro, S.S., & Wilk, M.B. (1965). An analysis of variance test for normality (complete samples). Biometrika, 52(3/4), 591–611. https://doi.org/10.2307/2333709
86. Sharma, U., Loreman, T., & Forlin, C. (2011). Developing the teacher efficacy for inclusive practices scale. Teaching and Teacher Education, 27(4), 734 743. https://doi.org/10.1037/t76434-000
87. Siwatu, K.O. (2007). Preservice teachers’ culturally responsive teaching self-efficacy and outcome expectancy beliefs. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23, 1086 1101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2006.07.011
88. Skaalvik, E.M., & Skaalvik, S. (2007). Dimensions of teacher self-efficacy and relations with strain factors, perceived collective teacher efficacy, and teacher burnout. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99, 611–625. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.99.3.611
89. Slater, E.V., & Main, S. (2020). A measure of classroom management: Validation of a pre-service teacher self-efficacy scale. Journal of Education for Teaching, 46(5), 616–630. https://doi.org/10.1080/02607476.2020.1770579
90. Sokal, L., Woloshyn, D., & Funk-Unrau, S. (2013). How important is practicum to pre-service teacher development for inclusive teaching? Effects on efficacy in classroom management. Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 59(2), 285 298. https://doi.org/10.55016/ojs/ajer.v59i2.55680
91. Spector, P.E. (1992). Summated scale construction: An introduction (Vol. 82). Sage. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412986038
92. Subban, P.K., & Round, P. (2015). Differentiated instruction at work: Reinforcing the art of classroom observation through the creation of a checklist for beginning and pre-service teachers. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 40(5), 117 131. https://doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2015v40n5.7
93. Tabachnick, B.G., & Fidell, L.S. (2013). Using multivariate statistics (6th ed.). Pearson.
94. Taherdoost, H., Sahibuddin, S., & Jalaliyoon, N. (2014). Exploratory factor analysis: Concepts and theory. In J. Balicki (Ed.), Advances in applied and pure mathematics (pp. 375–382). WSEAS. Mathematics and Computers in Science and Engineering Series. https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02557344
95. Tschannen-Moran, M., & Hoy, A.W. (2001). Teacher efficacy: Capturing an elusive construct. Teaching and Teacher Education, 17, 783–805. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0742-051X(01)00036-1
96. Tschannen-Moran, M., Hoy, A.W., & Hoy, W.K. (1998). Teacher efficacy: Its meaning and measure. Review of Educational Research, 68(2), 202 248. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543068002202
97. Tucker, L.R., & MacCallum, R.C. (1997). Exploratory factor analysis. American Psychological Association.
98. UNESCO. (1994). The world conference on special needs education: Access and quality. Final report. Ministry of Education and Science, Madrid; UNESCO.
99. UNESCO. (2008). Inclusive education: The way of the future. International Conference on Education: Forty-eighth session, International Conference Centre, Geneva.
100. UNESCO. (2019). Disability-inclusive education: Foundation level. Education learning and development module. UNESCO.
101. Watkins, M.W. (2018). Exploratory factor analysis: A guide to best practice. Journal of Black Psychology, 44(3), 219–246. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798418771807
102. Webster-Stratton, C., Reinke, W.M., Herman, K.C., & Newcomer, L.L. (2011). The Incredible Years Teacher Classroom Management Training: The methods and principles that support fidelity of training delivery. School Psychology Review, 40(4), 509 529. https://doi.org/10.1080/02796015.2011.12087527
103. Wheaton, B., Muthen, B., Alwin, D.F., & Summers, G.F. (1977). Assessing reliability and stability in panel models. Sociological Methodology, 8(3), 84 136. https://doi.org/10.2307/270754
104. Wickramasinghe, E.P., Seneviratne, R.D.E.A., Gunawardana, N.S., Sumathipala, A., & Mallen, C.D. (2022). Prevalence of occupational stress among secondary school teachers in public schools in the district of Colombo, Sri Lanka. Research in Health Science, 7(3). https://doi.org/10.22158/rhs.v7n3p12
105. Wong, H.K., & Wong, R.T. (2009). The first days of school: How to be an effective teacher. Harry K. Wong Publications.
106. Woodcock, S., & Reupert, A. (2012). A cross-sectional study of student teachers’ behaviour management strategies throughout their training years. Australian Educational Researcher, 39, 159–172. https://ro.uow.edu.au/edupapers/1081
107. Yogaranee, S. (2024). Perspectives of pre-service and in-service general education teachers of the Faculty of Education on inclusive education: A phenomenological study. Research Journal of Educational Sciences, 12(2), 1–14. https://www.isca.me