Soil Contamination by Metals/Metalloids around an Industrial Region and Associated Human Health Risk Assessment

Abstract

Industrial, agricultural, transportation, and waste management activities cause soil contamination by metals/metalloids. Soil contamination is an essential global concern since it poses a significant risk to human health. Particularly in areas near heavy industry, people are more prone to exposure. This study aims to determine current metal/metalloid contamination levels in soil from Aliağa industrial region and assess associated health risks. Five surface soil samples were collected from the region, representing residential, agricultural areas, and downwind of possible sources. Pollution indices were calculated to determine the metal(loid)s with anthropogenic inputs, and a human health risk assessment was conducted. As a result, significant to extreme enrichment of arsenic (As), moderate to significant enrichment of zinc (Zn) and manganese (Mn), and very high enrichment of lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) were observed in soil samples. Possible sources of contamination were iron and steel facilities with electric arc furnaces and oil combustion. Non-carcinogenic risk assessment revealed acceptable risks of exposure to Aliağa soils, while exposure scenarios had a great impact on estimated risks. Arsenic, chromium (Cr), and Pb appeared to be significant contributors to non-carcinogenic risk. Carcinogenic risks associated with exposure to As, Pb, Cr, cobalt (Co), and Cd in soils were evaluated to be at an acceptable level. This study only considered soil exposure pathways; hence, a comprehensive risk assessment is deemed necessary not to underestimate the risk of living around an industrial region. Nevertheless, the study provided crucial information for the current hot spots for metal(loid)s in the region and human exposure level.

Keywords

• Carcinogenic risk
• hazard quotient
• industrial sources
• soil
• trace elements

Thanks

The author would like to thank İzmir Institute of Technology Integrated Research Center for con-ducting metal(loid)s and TOC analysis (Environmental Development Application and Research Center) and particle size analysis (Center for Materials Research).

References

1. J. Briffa, E. Sinagra, R. Blundell, Heavy metal pollution in the environment and their toxicological effects on humans, Heliyon, 6 (9) (2020).
2. P. C. Nagajyoti, K. D. Lee, T. V. M. Sreekanth, Heavy metals, occurrence and toxicity for plants: A review, Environmental Chemistry Letters 8 (3) (2010) 199–216.
3. X. Xin, J. Shentu, T. Zhang, X. Yang, V. C. Baligar, Z. He, Sources, indicators, and assessment of soil contamination by potentially toxic metals. Sustainability (Switzerland) 14 (23) (2022).
4. G. Chen, G. Zeng, C. Du, D. Huang, L. Tang, L.Wang, G. Shen, Transfer of heavy metals from compost to red soil and groundwater under simulated rainfall conditions, Journal of Hazardous Materials 181 (1–3) (2010) 211–216.
5. P. K. Rai, S. S. Lee, M. Zhang, Y. F. Tsang, K. H. Kim, Heavy metals in food crops: Health risks, fate, mechanisms, and management, Environment International, 125 (2019) 365–385.
6. ATSDR, Toxicological Profile for Cadmium, Atlanta, Georgia, USA, 2012.
7. ATSDR, Toxicological Profile for Lead, Atlanta, Georgia, USA, 2020.
8. IARC, Beryllium, Cadmium, Mercury, and Exposures in the Glass Manufacturing Industry,Vol. 58 of IARC Monograps on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, UK, 1993.

9. IARC, Arsenic, metals, fibres, and dusts, Vol. 100C of IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, Lyon, France, 2012.
10. IARC, Cobalt, Antimony Compounds,and Weapons-grade Tungsten Alloy, Vol. 131 of IARC Monographs on the Identification of Carcinogenic Hazards to Humans, Lyon, France, 2023.
11. ATSDR, Toxicological Profile for Arsenic, Atlanta, Georgia, USA, 2007.
12. ATSDR, Addendum to the Toxicological Profile for Arsenic, Atlanta, Georgia, USA, 2016.
13. L. M. Cai, Q. S. Wang, J. Luo, L. G. Chen, R. L. Zhu, S. Wang, C. H. Tang, Heavy metal contamination and health risk assessment for children near a large Cu-smelter in central China, Science of the Total Environment, 650 (2019) 725–733.
14. M. Kara, Y. Dumanoğlu, H. Altıok, T. Elbir, M. Odabası, A. Bayram, Spatial distribution and source identification of trace elements in topsoil from heavily industrialized region, Aliaga, Turkey, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 186 (10) (2014) 6017–6038.
15. H. D. Weissmannová, J. Pavlovský, Indices of soil contamination by heavy metals – methodology of calculation for pollution assessment (minireview), Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 189 (12) (2017).
16. S. Yatkin, A. Bayram, Investigation of chemical compositions of urban, industrial, agricultural, and rural top-soils in İzmir, Turkey, Clean - Soil, Air, Water 39 (6) (2011) 522–529.
17. B. Cetin, S. Yatkin, A. Bayram, M. Odabasi, Ambient concentrations and source apportionment of PCBs and trace elements around an industrial area in Izmir, Turkey, Chemosphere 69 (8) (2007) 1267–1277.
18. M. Kara, Y. Dumanoglu, H. Altiok, T. Elbir, M. Odabasi, A. Bayram, Seasonal and spatial variations of atmospheric trace elemental deposition in the Aliaga industrial region, Turkey, Atmospheric Research 149 (2014) 204–216.
19. M. Odabasi, D. Tolunay, M. Kara, E. Ozgunerge Falay, G. Tuna, H. Altiok, Y. Dumanoglu, A. Bayram, T. Elbir, Investigation of spatial and historical variations of air pollution around an industrial region using trace and macro elements in tree components, Science of the Total Environment 550 (2016) 1010–1021.
20. E. Esen, F. Kucuksezgin, E. Uluturhan, Assessment of trace metal pollution in surface sediments of Nemrut Bay, Aegean Sea, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 160 (1–4) (2010) 257–266.
21. G. Neşer, A. Kontas, D. Ünsalan, E. Uluturhan, O. Altay, E. Darilmaz, F. Küçüksezgin, N. Tekoğul, F. Yercan, Heavy metals contamination levels at the Coast of Aliaĝa (Turkey) ship recycling zone, Marine Pollution Bulletin, 64 (4) (2012) 882–887.
22. E. Tunca, M. Aydın, Ü. A. Şahin, An ecological risk investigation of marine sediment from the northern Mediterranean coasts (Aegean Sea) using multiple methods of pollution determination, Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 25 (8) (2018) 7487–7503.
23. A. Yılmaz, B. Karacık, S. D. Yakan, B. Henkelmann, K. W. Schramm, O. S. Okay, Organic and heavy metal pollution in shipbreaking yards, Ocean Engineering 123 (2016) 452–457.
24. M. Kara, Y. Dumanoglu, H. Altiok, T. Elbir, M. Odabasi, A. Bayram, Spatial variation of trace elements in seawater and sediment samples in a heavily industrialized region, Environmental Earth Sciences 73 (1) (2015) 405–421.
25. H. Aydın, E. E. Yürür, S. Uzar, F. Küçüksezgin, Endüstriyel kirliliğin etkisindeki Aliağa ve Nemrut Körfezi modern dinoflagellat kist topluluğu, Turkish Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 15 (2) (2015) 543–554.
26. M. Aydın, E. Tunca, Ü. Alver Şahin, Effects of anthropological factors on the metal accumulation profiles of sea cucumbers in near industrial and residential coastlines of İzmir, Turkey, International Journal of Environmental Analytical Chemistry 97 (4) (2017) 368–382.
27. D. Ozkan, M. Dagdeviren, S. Katalay, A. Guner, N. Ü. K. Yavaşoğlu, Multi-biomarker responses after exposure to pollution in the Mediterranean mussels (mytilus galloprovincialis l.) in the Aegean Coast of Turkey, Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 98 (1) (2017) 46–52.
28. I. Pazi, L. T. Gonul, F. Kucuksezgin, G. Avaz, L. Tolun, A. Unluoglu, Y. Karaaslan, S. M. Gucver, A. Koc Orhon, E. Siltu, G. Olmez, Potential risk assessment of metals in edible fish species for human consumption from the Eastern Aegean Sea, Marine Pollution Bulletin, 120 (1–2) (2017) 409–413.
29. B. Çolak Esetlili, T. Pekcan, E. Aydoğdu, S. Turan, D. Anaç, Natural radionuclides and heavy metal contents in the olive (Olea Europaea L.) groves of Northwestern Anatolia, Journal of Tekirdag Agricultural Faculty 16 (2) (2019) 260–269.
30. M. Odabasi, A. Bayram, T. Elbir, R. Seyfioglu, Y. Dumanoglu, S. Ornektekin, Investigation of soil concentrations of persistent organic pollutants, trace elements, and anions due to iron–steel plant emissions in an industrial region in Turkey, Water, Air and Soil Pollution 213 (1–4) (2010) 375–388.
31. A. O. Famuyiwa, C. M. Davidson, A. O. Oyeyiola, S. Ande, Y. Lanre‐Iyanda, S. O. Babajide, Pollution characteristics and health risk assessment of potentially toxic elements in school playground soils: A case study of Lagos, Nigeria, Human and Ecological Risk Assessment 25 (7) (2019) 1729–1744.
32. A. A. Yaroshevsky, Abundances of chemical elements in the Earth’s crust, Geochemistry International 44 (1) (2006) 48–55.
33. R. A. Sutherland, Bed sediment-associated trace metals in an urban stream, Oahu, Hawaii, Cases and Solutions Environmental Geology 39 (6) (2000).
34. L. Hakanson, An ecological risk index for aquatic pollution control.a sedimentological approach, Water Research 14 (8) (1980) 975–1001.
35. D. L. Tomlinson, J. G. Wilson, C. R. Harris, D. W.Jeffrey, Problems in the assessment of heavy-metal levels in estuaries and the formation of a pollution index, Helgoländer Meeresuntersuchungen, 33 (1980) 566–575.
36. G. Müller, Index of geoaccumulation in sediments of the Rhine River, GeoJournal 2 (1969) 108–118.
37. US EPA, Exposure Factors Handbook: 2011 Edition, National Center for Environmental Assessment, Washington, DC, USA, 2011.
38. ECHA, European Chemicals Agency Information on Chemicals, https://echa.europa.eu/information-on-chemicals, Accessed 28 Aug 2023.
39. Health Canada, Toxicological Reference Values (TRVs) and Chemical-Specific Factors, Version 2.0, Part II of Federal Contaminated Site Rsik Assessment in Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, 2010.
40. OEHHA, California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, https://oehha.ca.gov/chemicals, Accessed 28 Aug 2023.
41. US EPA, CompTox Chemicals Dashboard, https://comptox.epa.gov/dashboard/, Accessed 28 Aug 2023.
42. US EPA, Example Exposure Scenarios, National Center for Environmental Assessment, Washington, DC, USA, 2004.
43. US EPA, Supplemental Guidance for Developing Soil Screening Levels for Superfund Sites, Washington DC, USA, 2002.
44. OEHHA, Cobalt and Cobalt Compounds Cancer Inhalation Unit Risk Factors, California, USA, 2020.
45. İ. Eroğlu, R. Bozyiğit, The natural and humanitarian factors affecting the land use in Aliağa, Marmara Coğrafya Dergisi 27 (2013) 353–400.
46. S. Yatkin, A. Bayram, Determination of major natural and anthropogenic source profiles for particulate matter and trace elements in Izmir, Turkey, Chemosphere, 71 (4) (2008) 685–696.
47. H. Zhao, Y. Wu, X. Lan, Y. Yang, X. Wu, L. Du, Comprehensive assessment of harmful heavy metals in contaminated soil in order to score pollution level, Scientific Reports, 12(1) (2022).
48. M. Mansha, B. Ghauri, S. Rahman, A. Amman, Characterization and source apportionment of ambient air particulate matter (PM2.5) in Karachi, Science of the Total Environment, 425 (2012) 176–183.
49. W. Jiao, W. Chen, A. C. Chang, A. L. Page, Environmental risks of trace elements associated with long-term phosphate fertilizers applications: A review, Environmental Pollution 168 (2012) 44–53.
50. M. M. Nederlof, W. H. Van Riemsdijk, Effect of natural organic matter and ph on the bioavailability of metal ions in soils, in: P. M. Huang, J. Berthelin, J. M. Bollag, W. B. McGill, A. L. Page (Eds.), Environmental Impact of Soil Component Interactions: Metals, Other Inorganics, and Microbial Activities Volume II, CRC Press, London, 1995, Ch. 7, pp. 75–86.
51. A. Kicińska, R. Pomykała, M. Izquierdo-Diaz, Changes in soil pH and mobility of heavy metals in contaminated soils, European Journal of Soil Science, 73 (1) (2022).
52. A. Y. Goren, M. Genisoglu, Y. Kazancl, S. C. Sofuoglu, Countrywide spatial variation of potentially toxic element contamination in soils of Turkey and assessment of population health risks for nondietary ingestion, ACS Omega 7(41) (2022) 36457–36467.
53. B. Cetin, Soil concentrations and source apportionment of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and trace elements around a heavily industrialized area in Kocaeli, Turkey, Environmental Science and Pollution Research International 21 (13) (2014) 8284–8293.
54. T. Minkina, E. Konstantinova, T. Bauer, S. Mandzhieva, S. Sushkova, V. Chaplygin, M. Burachevskaya, O. Nazarenko, R. Kizilkaya, C. Gülser, A. Maksimov, Environmental and human health risk assessment of potentially toxic elements in soils around the largest coal-fired power station in Southern Russia, Environmental Geochemistry and Health 43(6) (2021) 2285–2300.
55. I. G. Cho, M. K. Park, H. K. Cho, J. W. Jeon, S. E. Lee, S. D. Choi, Characteristics of metal contamination in paddy soils from three industrial cities in South Korea, Environmental Geochemistry and Health 41 (5) (2019) 1895– 1907.
56. F. Nikfar, S. Sabzalipour, A. Gholami, A. Nazarpour, Carcinogenic risk assessment, health endpoint and source identification of heavy metals in Mahshahr, Iran, Toxin Reviews 42 (1) (2023) 132–145.
57. R. Dragović, B. Gajić, S. Dragović, M. Dordević, M. Dordević, N. Mihailović, A. Onjia, Assessment of the impact of geographical factors on the spatial distribution of heavy metals in soils around the steel production facility in Smederevo (Serbia), Journal of Cleaner Production 84 (1) (2014) 550–562.
58. A. Ozturk, O. K. Arici, Carcinogenic-potential ecological risk assessment of soils and wheat in the eastern region of Konya (Turkey), Environmental Science and Pollution Research 28 (2021) 15471–15484.
59. Y. Jiang, S. Chao, J. Liu, Y. Yang, Y. Chen, A. Zhang, H. Cao, Source apportionment and health risk assessment of heavy metals in soil for a township in Jiangsu Province, China, Chemosphere 168 (2017) 1658–1668.