Research Article

The "Terrible Turk" Reconsidered: The Transformation of American Views on the "Turk" through Direct Encounters

Number: 64 December 30, 2025
EN TR

The "Terrible Turk" Reconsidered: The Transformation of American Views on the "Turk" through Direct Encounters

Abstract

The “Terrible Turk” image originated in Europe and was later transmitted to colonial America through clerical writings and church culture. After independence, Americans adopted this perception and repeated European descriptions of the “Turk” in Barbary captivity narratives following the enslavement of American seamen by the North African states. Since the region was ruled and populated by Muslims, the negative image of the “Turk” continued to serve as a general label for Islam. The Greek War of Independence further reinforced this perception, depicting “Turks” as cruel oppressors and portraying the conflict as a holy struggle of the Cross against the Crescent. American newspapers circulated and amplified Philhellenism through letters, literary texts, and accounts arriving from Europe, many of which emphasized Ottoman atrocities. Meanwhile, increasing numbers of American missionaries, travelers, diplomats, and merchants visited Anatolia and encountered “Turks” in person. Their writings—some published as travel narratives and personal letters, others preserved in archives—show how firsthand experience challenged earlier assumptions. These texts presented a more favorable view of the Turks without European intervention or secondhand mediation, introducing a more balanced representation into American discourse.

Keywords

Image, travel narratives, captivity narratives, Turkish-American relations, Ottoman Empire

Thanks

This article is based on my doctoral thesis, and I would like to thank TÜBİTAK for the research support.

References

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APA
Avcı, A. (2025). The "Terrible Turk" Reconsidered: The Transformation of American Views on the "Turk" through Direct Encounters. Journal of American Studies of Turkey, 64, 9-22. https://izlik.org/JA32RZ54YE
AMA
1.Avcı A. The "Terrible Turk" Reconsidered: The Transformation of American Views on the "Turk" through Direct Encounters. JAST. 2025;(64):9-22. https://izlik.org/JA32RZ54YE
Chicago
Avcı, Ayşegül. 2025. “The "Terrible Turk" Reconsidered: The Transformation of American Views on the ‘Turk’ through Direct Encounters”. Journal of American Studies of Turkey, nos. 64: 9-22. https://izlik.org/JA32RZ54YE.
EndNote
Avcı A (December 1, 2025) The "Terrible Turk" Reconsidered: The Transformation of American Views on the "Turk" through Direct Encounters. Journal of American Studies of Turkey 64 9–22.
IEEE
[1]A. Avcı, “The "Terrible Turk" Reconsidered: The Transformation of American Views on the ‘Turk’ through Direct Encounters”, JAST, no. 64, pp. 9–22, Dec. 2025, [Online]. Available: https://izlik.org/JA32RZ54YE
ISNAD
Avcı, Ayşegül. “The "Terrible Turk" Reconsidered: The Transformation of American Views on the ‘Turk’ through Direct Encounters”. Journal of American Studies of Turkey. 64 (December 1, 2025): 9-22. https://izlik.org/JA32RZ54YE.
JAMA
1.Avcı A. The "Terrible Turk" Reconsidered: The Transformation of American Views on the "Turk" through Direct Encounters. JAST. 2025;:9–22.
MLA
Avcı, Ayşegül. “The "Terrible Turk" Reconsidered: The Transformation of American Views on the ‘Turk’ through Direct Encounters”. Journal of American Studies of Turkey, no. 64, Dec. 2025, pp. 9-22, https://izlik.org/JA32RZ54YE.
Vancouver
1.Ayşegül Avcı. The "Terrible Turk" Reconsidered: The Transformation of American Views on the "Turk" through Direct Encounters. JAST [Internet]. 2025 Dec. 1;(64):9-22. Available from: https://izlik.org/JA32RZ54YE