Does Saccharin Have Effect on Appetite, Energy Intake, and Serum Ghrelin? A Randomized, Controlled, Cross-Over Study in Healthy Males

Abstract

Objective: Instead of sugar, artificial sweeteners that do not contain energy are widely used. However, contrary to popular belief, artificial sweeteners are thought to affect metabolism. Thus, purpose of this present study was to evaluate effects of saccharin on serum ghrelin, appetite, and food consumption. Method: Nine healthy males aged 20-29 participated in the randomized, controlled, and cross-over study. Each participant received 300 ml water, and 300 ml water containing 75 grams sucrose and 240 milligrams saccharin. At baseline, 30th, 60th, 90th, 120th, and 180th min, Visual Analog Scale was applied to evaluate appetite, and blood samples were taken to analyze ghrelin. After 180th min, participants consumed ad libitum diet, and kept 24-hours dietary food intake records until the end of this day. Results: At 60th and 120th min, mean ghrelin level was higher in drinks containing only water and saccharin compared to drink containing sucrose (p<0.05). In addition, in 90th min following drink consumption, mean ghrelin level was higher in drink containing saccharin than sucrose test drink (p<0.05). Mean prospective food consumption and desire to eat score at 120th min after drink consumption was higher in saccharin test drink than sucrose test drink (p<0.05). Difference between energy and macronutrient intake was statistically insignificant (p>0.05). Conclusion: To achieve body weight control, the frequency and amount of consumption of saccharin foods and drinks should be reduced and controlled. Because it seems to have an effect on appetite in the acute period.

Keywords

• Saccharin
• energy intake
• appetite
• ghrelin level
• artificial sweetener

Sakarinin İştah, Enerji Alımı ve Serum Ghrelin Üzerinde Etkisi Var mı? Sağlıklı Erkeklerde Randomize, Kontrollü, Çapraz Bir Çalışma

Abstract

Amaç: Günümüzde şeker yerine enerji içermeyen yapay tatlandırıcılar yaygın olarak kullanılmaktadır. Ancak bilinenin aksine yapay tatlandırıcıların metabolizmayı çeşitli yönlerden etkilediği düşünülmektedir. Bu çalışmanın amacı sakarinin serum ghrelin düzeyi, iştah ve besin tüketimi üzerindeki etkilerini değerlendirmektir. Metod: Randomize, kontrollü ve çapraz olarak yapılan çalışmaya 20-29 yaşları arasında dokuz sağlıklı erkek katılmıştır. Her katılımcıya 300 ml su, 75 gram sakaroz içeren 300 ml su ve 240 miligram sakarin içeren 300 ml su verilmiştir. Başlangıç, 30., 60., 90., 120. ve 180. dakikalarda iştahı değerlendirmek için Görsel Analog Skala uygulanmış ve ghrelin analizi için kan örnekleri alınmıştır. Yüzsekseninci sonra katılımcılar ad libitum beslenmişler ve her uygulama günün sonuna kadar 24 saatlik diyet besin tüketim kaydı tutmuşlardır. Bulgular: Altmışıncı ve 120. dakikalarda sadece su ve sakarinli içeceklerde ortalama ghrelin düzeyi sükroz içeren içeceğe kıyasla daha yüksektir (p<0.05). Ayrıca içecek tüketimini takip eden 90. dakikada sakarin içeren içecekte ortalama ghrelin düzeyi sükroz içerene göre daha yüksektir (p<0.05). İçecek tüketiminden sonraki 120. dakikada ortalama besin tüketme potansiyeli ve yemek yeme isteği skorları, sakarin test içeceğinden sonra sükroz test içeceğine kıyasla daha yüksektir (p<0.05). Enerji ve makro besin ögesi alımlarında uygulamalar arasında farklılık bulunmamıştır (p>0.05). Sonuç: Vücut ağırlığı kontrolünü sağlamak için sakarinli yiyecek ve içeceklerin tüketim sıklığı ve miktarı azaltılmalı ve kontrol altına alınmalıdır. Bunun nedeni çalışmadaki akut sakarin tüketiminin iştah üzerindeki etkilerini gösteren bulgulardır.

Keywords

• Sakarin
• enerji alımı
• iştah
• ghrelin düzeyi
• yapay tatlandırıcılar

References

1. Referans 1 Gardner C, Wylie-Rosett J, Gidding SS, Steffen LM, Johnson RK, Reader D, et al. Nonnutritive sweeteners: current use and health perspectives: A scientific statement from the American Heart Association and the American Diabetes Association. Circulation 2012; 126(4): 509-19.
2. Referans 2 Gıda Tarım ve Hayvancılık Bakanlığı. Türk Gida Kodeksi Gida Katki Maddeleri Yönetmeliğinde Değişiklik Yapilmasina Dair Yönetmelik. 2017.
3. Referans 3 Food and Drug Association. High intensity sweeteners. 2014.
4. Referans 4 Temizkan S, Deyneli O, Yasar M, Arpa M, Gunes M, Yazici D, et al. Sucralose enhances GLP-1 release and lowers blood glucose in the presence of carbohydrate in healthy subjects but not in patients with type 2 diabetes. Eur J Clin Nutr 2015; 69(2): 162-6.
5. Referans 5 Tey S, Salleh N, Henry C, Forde C. Effects of non-nutritive (artificial vs natural) sweeteners on 24-h glucose profiles. Eur J Clin Nutr 2017; 71(9): 1129-32.
6. Referans 6 Tey S, Salleh N, Henry J, Forde C. Effects of aspartame-, monk fruit-, stevia-and sucrose-sweetened beverages on postprandial glucose, insulin and energy intake. Int J Obes 2017; 41(3): 450-7.
7. Referans 7 American Dietetic Association. The truth about artificial sweeteners or sugar substitutes. 2011.
8. Referans 8 Whitehouse CR, Boullata J, McCauley LA. The potential toxicity of artificial sweeteners. AAOHN J 2008; 56(6): 251-61.

9. Referans 9 Shankar P, Ahuja S, Sriram K. Non-nutritive sweeteners: review and update. Nutrition 2013; 29(11-12): 1293-9.
10. Referans 10 Magnuson B, Burdock G, Doull J, Kroes R, Marsh G, Pariza M, et al. Aspartame: a safety evaluation based on current use levels, regulations, and toxicological and epidemiological studies. Crit Rev Toxicol 2007; 37(8): 629-727.
11. Referans 11 Food and Drug Association. Drug Administration Code of Federal Regulations Title 21. 2014.
12. Referans 12 National Cancer Institute. Artificial sweeteners and cancer. 2014.
13. Referans 13 Burke MV, Small DM. Physiological mechanisms by which non-nutritive sweeteners may impact body weight and metabolism. Physiol Behav 2015; 152: 381-8.
14. Referans 14 Chia CW, Shardell M, Tanaka T, Liu DD, Gravenstein KS, Simonsick EM, et al. Chronic low-calorie sweetener use and risk of abdominal obesity among older adults: a cohort study. PloS One 2016; 11(11): e0167241.
15. Referans 15 Disse E, Bussier A-L, Veyrat-Durebex C, Deblon N, Pfluger PT, Tschöp MH, et al. Peripheral ghrelin enhances sweet taste food consumption and preference, regardless of its caloric content. Physiol Behav 2010; 101(2): 277-81.
16. Referans 16 Rogers PJ, Carlyle J-A, Hill AJ, Blundell JE. Uncoupling sweet taste and calories: comparison of the effects of glucose and three intense sweeteners on hunger and food intake. Physiol Behav 1988; 43(5): 547-52.
17. Referans 17 Derici Yıldırım D, Taşdelen, B. Deneysel Araştırmalarda Latin Kare Deneme Düzenlerinin Kullanımı. Mersin Univ Saglık Bilim Derg 2012; 5(2).
18. Referans 18 Brown AW, Brown MMB, Onken KL, Beitz DC. Short-term consumption of sucralose, a nonnutritive sweetener, is similar to water with regard to select markers of hunger signaling and short-term glucose homeostasis in women. Nutr Res 2011; 31(12): 882-8.
19. Referans 19 Elliott SA, Ng J, Leow MK-S, Henry CJ. The influence of the menstrual cycle on energy balance and taste preference in Asian Chinese women. Eur J Nutr 2015; 54(8): 1323-32.
20. Referans 20 Lohman TG, Roche AF, Martorell R. Anthropometric standardization reference manual: Human kinetics Champaign; 1991.
21. Referans 21 Pradhan G, Samson SL, Sun Y. Ghrelin: much more than a hunger hormone. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2013; 16(6): 619.
22. Referans 22 Zhao T-J, Sakata I, Li RL, Liang G, Richardson JA, Brown MS, et al. Ghrelin secretion stimulated by β1-adrenergic receptors in cultured ghrelinoma cells and in fasted mice. PNAS 2010; 107(36): 15868-73.
23. Referans 23 Foster-Schubert KE, Overduin J, Prudom CE, Liu J, Callahan HS, Gaylinn BD, et al. Acyl and total ghrelin are suppressed strongly by ingested proteins, weakly by lipids, and biphasically by carbohydrates. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2008; 93(5): 1971-9.
24. Referans 24 Hass N, Schwarzenbacher K, Breer H. T1R3 is expressed in brush cells and ghrelin-producing cells of murine stomach. Cell Tissue Res 2010; 339(3): 493-504.
25. Referans 25 DuBois GE. Molecular mechanism of sweetness sensation. Physiol Behav 2016; 164: 453-63.
26. Referans 26 Pierre A, Regin Y, Van Schuerbeek A, Fritz E, Muylle K, Beckers T, et al. Effects of disrupted ghrelin receptor function on fear processing, anxiety and saccharin preference in mice. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2019; 110: 104430.
27. Referans 27 Zhao X, Yan J, Chen K, Song L, Sun B, Wei X. Effects of saccharin supplementation on body weight, sweet receptor mRNA expression and appetite signals regulation in post-weanling rats. Peptides 2018; 107: 32-8.
28. Referans 28 Steensels S, Vancleef L, Depoortere I. The sweetener-sensing mechanisms of the ghrelin cell. Nutrients 2016; 8(12): 795.
29. Referans 29 Steinert RE, Frey F, Töpfer A, Drewe J, Beglinger C. Effects of carbohydrate sugars and artificial sweeteners on appetite and the secretion of gastrointestinal satiety peptides. Br J Nutr 2011; 105(9): 1320-8.
30. Referans 30 Reid M, Hammersley R, Hill AJ, Skidmore P. Long-term dietary compensation for added sugar: effects of supplementary sucrose drinks over a 4-week period. Br J Nutr 2007; 97(1): 193-203.
31. Referans 31 Blundell J, Hill A. Paradoxical effects of an intense sweetener (aspartame) on appetite. Lancet 1986; 1(8489): 1092-3.
32. Referans 32 Furudono Y, Ando C, Yamamoto C, Kobashi M, Yamamoto T. Involvement of specific orexigenic neuropeptides in sweetener-induced overconsumption in rats. Behav Brain Res 2006; 175(2): 241-8.