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Cicero Döneminde Kilikia’nın Ekonomik Yönetimi

Yıl 2009, Sayı: 17, 131 - 156, 01.05.2009

Öz

İ.Ö. 133’te Romalılar’ın Küçük Asya’yı ele geçirmesinden sonra, farklı durum
ve ortamlarda değişik türden sömürü ve kötü uygulamalar görülmektedir. Tamamı
değil, ancak pekçok eyalet yöneticisinin, idari konularda yoz, gaddar ve yetersiz
oldukları anlaşılmaktadır. Bunlardan kötü uygulamalarda bulunanlar, kendilerinden
sonra idareye gelecek olan eyalet yöneticilerinin itibarına ve bir bütün halinde
Roma yönetimine fevkalade zarar vermişlerdir.
Eyalet yöneticilerinin, eyaletlerde ilgilenmek zorunda oldukları çok sayıda
sorun bulunmaktaydı. Bunlar içerisinde eyalet yöneticilerinin, eyaletlerde publicani ve Roma’da senatörlerle ilişkileri olmak üzere karşı karşıya bulundukları iki
önemli problem vardı.
Eyalette mali yönetimle ilgili en önemli meselelerin ilki vergilerin toplanmasıyla bağlantılıydı. Cicero dönemine kadar bu konuda çok sayıda hüküm verilmiş
ve vergilerin toplanması aşağı yukarı belli bir yapı kazanmıştı. Ancak, Cicero
döneminde Senato’ya gönderilmiş olan mektuplar halen bu konuyla ilgili ilginç
görüşleri de ifade etmektedir. Ayrıca Senato’nun yöneticilere eyaletlerde kamusal
ihtiyaçlar için zor durumlarda para toplama yetkisi verdiği de gözlemlenmektedir.
Fakat, Cicero yöneticiliği döneminde vergi toplayıcılarına suistimal fırsatı vermeyecektir.
İkinci problem Cilicia halkından bir kısmının Romalı sermaye sahiplerine
(Roma seçkin sınıfından olanlara) olan borçları ve borçlarını geri ödeme konusunda içine düştükleri sıkıntılardı. Asya eyaletinin ilhakından sonra bölgenin yerli
halkı vergilerini ödemek ve durumlarını hafifletmek için Romalı bu seçkin sınıftan
borç almak zorunda kalmıştır. Bu durum sık sık taşradaki halk ve Roma senatörleri arasında borçlanma problemlerinin ortaya çıkmasına sebep olmuş ve onların
durumlarını hafifletmekten ziyade, içinden çıkılması zor bir durum meydana
getirmişti. Devlet ne şehirlerin ne de kişilerin iflaslar yoluyla varlıklarını kaybetmelerini, ne de senatörleri kızdırmayı istemediği için, bu problemlerin çözümüne
vergilerin toplanması kadar önem vermekteydi.
Cilicia’nın eyalet yöneticisi olarak Cicero, bu yüzden Roma, Roma elit tabakası, Romalı iş adamları ile Küçük Asya’nın yerli halkı arasında bağlantı kurmakta
önemli bir rol oynamıştır. Eyaletlerde kendi imtiyazlarını, arkadaşlarının haklarını
gözetmek ve ustalıkla (her zaman bu şekilde olmasa da) korumak ve garantiye
almak için nasıl kullanması gerektiğini bilen Cicero, Cilicia ve Küçük Asya’da
eyalet yönetimi açısından iyi bir örnek teşkil etmektedir. Cicero, Cilicia ve Küçük Asya’da kendisine verilen hak ve yetkiler doğrultusunda arkadaşlarının haklarını
ustalıkla (bazen de acemice) koruma ve garantiye alma inisiyatifini nasıl kullanacağını bilen yöneticilere güzel bir örnektir

Kaynakça

  • Allen (Jr.) 1954 Allen, (Jr.), W., “Cicero’s Conceit”, Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, Vol. 85, 121-144.
  • Allen 1887 Allen, W.F., “The Monetary Crisis in Rome, A.D. 33”, Transactions of the American, Philological Association (1869-1896), Vol. 18, 5-18.
  • Andreau 1999 Andreau J., Banking and Business in the Roman World, translated by Janet Lloyd, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
  • App., Mith., Appianos, Mithridateios: Appian’s Roman History II, translated by Horace White, London (The Loeb Classical Library).
  • Balsdon 1939 Balsdon, J. P. V. D., “Consular Provinces under the Late Republic, I. General Considerations”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 29, Part 1., 57-73.
  • Balsdon 1962 Balsdon, J. P. V. D., “Roman History, 65-50 B.C.: Five Problems”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 52, Parts 1 and 2,134-141.
  • Broughton 1936 Broughton, T. R. S., “On Two Passages of Cicero Referring to Local Taxes in Asia”, The American Journal of Philology, Vol. 57, No. 2,173-176.
  • Brunt 1981 Brunt, P. A., “Review: The Revenues of Rome, Reviewed Work(s):Untersuchungen zu den Direkten Staatsabgaben der Romischen Kaiserzeit (27 V. Chr.--284 N.Chr.) by Lutz Neesen”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 71, 161-172.
  • Cic, Off. M. Tullius Cicero: De Officiis: On Duties, edited by M. T. Griffin and E. M. Atkins, London 1913 (Cambridge University Press).
  • Cic. Q. Fr. M. Tullius Cicero, Epistulae ad Quintum fratrem: The Letters to His Brother Quintus, translated by W. Glynn Williams, London 1972 (The Loeb Classical Library).
  • Cic., ad Att. M. Tullius Cicero, Epistulae ad Atticum: Cicero’s Letters to Atticus, translated by D. R. Shackleton Bailey, Cambridge 1978 (Penguin Classics).
  • Cic., ad fam. M. Tullius Cicero, Epistulae ad familiares: Cicero’s Letters to His Friends, translated by D. R. Shackleton Bailey, Cambridge 1978 (Penguin Classics).
  • Cic., De imp.Cn.Pomp. M. Tullius Cicero, De Imperio Cn Pompei Ad Quirites Oratio (pro Lege Manilia), edited by C. Macdonald, Bristol 1986.
  • Cic., Flac. M. Tullius Cicero, Pro Flacco: The Speeches (In Catilinam I-IV - Pro Murena - Pro Sulla - Pro Flacco), translated by Louis E. Lord, London 1946, (The Loeb Classical Library)
  • Cic., Orat. M. Tullius Cicero, Orator M. Brutum: M. Tulli Ciceronis Brutus, edited by A. E. Douglas, Oxford 1966 (Clarendon Press ).
  • Cic., Q. Fr. M. Tullius Cicero, Epistulae ad Quintum fratrem: The Letters to His Brother Quintus, translated by W. Glynn Williams, London 1972 (The Loeb Classical Library)
  • Cobban 1935 Cobban, B.B., Senate and Provinces (78-49 BC), Cambridge. Frank 1933 Frank, T., “On Some Financial Legislation of the Sullan Period”, The American Journal of Philology, Vol. 54, No. 1, 54-58.
  • Guite 1962 Guite, H., “Cicero’s Attitude to the Greeks”, Greece & Rome, 2nd Ser., Vol. 9, No. 2., 142-159.
  • Hawthorn 1962 Hawthorn, J. R., “The Senate after Sula”, Greece & Rome, 2nd Ser., Vol. 9, No. 1, 53-60.
  • Holmes 1923 Holmes, T. R., The Roman Republic and The Founder of the Empire, I-III, Oxford.
  • Holy Bible 1991 The Holy Bible, (The King James Version), revised and authorised by Samuel Bagster, London.
  • Hopkins 1980 Hopkins, K., “Taxes and Trade in the Roman Empire (200 B.C.- A.D. 400)”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70,101-125.
  • Hopwood 1999 Hopwood, K., “Review: Life after Finley?, Reviewed Work(s):Roman Urbanism: Beyond the Consumer City by H. M. Parkins”, The Classical Review, New Ser., Vol. 49, No. 1, 197-199.
  • Howgego 1992 Howgego, C., “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82, 1-31.
  • Hunter 1913 Hunter, L. W., “Cicero’s Journey to His Province of Cilicia in 51 B.C.”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 3, Part 1, 73-97.
  • Jones 1974 Jones, A. H. M., The Roman Economy, edited by P.A. Brunt, (Oxford ).
  • Marshall 1964 Marshall, A. J., “Cicero’s Letter to Cyprus”, Phoenix 18, No. 3, 206- 215.
  • Marshall 1966 Marshall, A. J., “Governors On The Move”, Phoenix 20, 231-246.
  • Marshall 1972 Marshall, A. J., “The lex Pompeia de provinciis (52 BC) and Cicero’s imperium in 51-50 BC: constitutional aspects”, ANRW I.I, 887-921.
  • Mitchell 1991 Mitchell, T. N., Cicero. The Senior Statesman, London. Mitchell 1979 Mitchell, S., “R.E.C.A.M. Notes and Studies No. 5: A Roman Family in Phrygia”, Anatolian Studies, Vol. 29, 13-22.
  • North 1981 North, J. A., “The Development of Roman Imperialism”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 71, 1-9.
  • Özbayoğlu 1998 Özbayoğlu, E., “Cicero’nun, Panter Avına İlişkin Birkaç Cilicia Mektubu”, Olba, Mersin Üniversitesi Kilikia Arkeolojisini Araştırma Merkezi Yayınları I, 131-138.
  • Plut. Cic. Plutarkhos, Cicero: Plutarch, The Life of Cicero, translated by J. L. Moles, Warminster 1988.
  • Plut., Luc. Plutarkhos, Lucullus: Plutarch’s Lives, in eleven volumes II: Themistokles and Camillus Aristides and Cato Major, Cimon and Lucullus, London, New York 1928. (The Loeb Classical Library). Rawson 1975 Rawson, E., Cicero. A Portrait, Bristol.
  • Rowland 1972 Rowland, R. J., “Cicero and the Greek World”, Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, Vol. 103, 451-461.
  • Sen. Ir. L. A. Senaca, De Ira: Moral Essays (De Providentia. De Constantia. De Ira. De Clementia), translated by John W. Basore, Vol. I, London 1953 (The Loeb Classical Library).
  • Shaw 1990 Shaw, B. D., “Bandit Highlands and Lowland Peace: The Mountains of Isauria-Cilicia”, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, Vol. 33, No. 2., 199-233.
  • Sherwin-White 1984 Sherwin-White, A. N., Roman Foreign Policy in the East (168 BC to AD 1), London.
  • Smethurst 1953 Smethurst, S. E., “ Cicero and Roman Imperial Policy”, Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, Vol. 84, 216-226.
  • Smethurst 1958 Smethurst, S. E., “Cicero and the Senate”, The Classical Journal, Vol. 54, No. 2.,73-78.
  • Smith 1966 Smith, R. E., Cicero The Statesman, Cambridge. Stockton 1971 Stockton, D., Cicero. A Political Biography, Oxford. Syme 1979 Syme, R., “Observations on the province of Cilicia”, Roman Papers, vol. I ,Oxford , 121-148.
  • Tan 2007 Tan, T., Financing an Empire (Banking, Borses and Capital Markets of the Roman Republic), Advisor Richord A. Billows, thesis submitted to the Comubia University, Department of History, New York.
  • Thompson 1965 Thompson, L. A., “Cicero’s Succession-Problem in Cilicia”, The American Journal of Philology, Vol. 86, No. 4, 375-386.
  • Warmington 1972 Warmington, B. H., “Review: [Untitled], Reviewed Work(s):Roman Imperialism in the Late Republic by E. Badian”, The International Journal of African Historical Studies, Vol. 5, No. 1,114-116.

ECONOMIC MANAGEMENT OF CILICIA IN THE TIME OF CICERO

Yıl 2009, Sayı: 17, 131 - 156, 01.05.2009

Öz

Different kinds of exploitation can be ascertained after the Roman annexation
of Asia Minor in 133 B.C. A number of governors were corrupt, cruel, and inefficient. Those with corrupt governments did great damage to the image of their
successors and to Roman administration in general. Governors had to deal with
a number of problems, including relations with the publicani in the province and
senators in Rome.
The first problem concerned economic management, particularly, malpractice
in the field of tax gathering. Up to the time of Cicero, numerous decrees had been
passed on this subject, and tax collecting was almost settled. Based on derisive
comments contained in a dispatch by Cicero to the Senate, however, it appears
that the Senate gave governors authority to collect money for public needs in the
province in difficult times. Cicero would not allow tax collectors to get away with
abuses under his governorship.
The second problem was the debt and interest that the people of Cilicia owed
Roman moneylenders, who were in general members of the Roman élite. After the
annexation of the province of Asia, the inhabitants there were forced to borrow
money from the Roman élite in order to pay their taxes and relieve their situation.
This, however, often resulted in debt problems arising between provincials and
Roman senators and, rather than relieving the people in the provinces, placed them
in an impossible situation. The resolution of these problems was as important as tax
collection, because the state sought neither to lose its sources of revenues through
the bankruptcy of cities or individuals in the provinces nor to vex senators.
Cicero, as a provincial governor of Cilicia, played an important role in contacts
between Rome, the Roman élite, Roman businessmen, and native peoples of Asia
Minor. He is a good example of a governor who knows how to use initiative, in
light of his rights, to preserve and ensure the rights of his friends in the provinces through friendly involvement and the subtle (and sometimes not so subtle) use of
privilege

Kaynakça

  • Allen (Jr.) 1954 Allen, (Jr.), W., “Cicero’s Conceit”, Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, Vol. 85, 121-144.
  • Allen 1887 Allen, W.F., “The Monetary Crisis in Rome, A.D. 33”, Transactions of the American, Philological Association (1869-1896), Vol. 18, 5-18.
  • Andreau 1999 Andreau J., Banking and Business in the Roman World, translated by Janet Lloyd, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
  • App., Mith., Appianos, Mithridateios: Appian’s Roman History II, translated by Horace White, London (The Loeb Classical Library).
  • Balsdon 1939 Balsdon, J. P. V. D., “Consular Provinces under the Late Republic, I. General Considerations”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 29, Part 1., 57-73.
  • Balsdon 1962 Balsdon, J. P. V. D., “Roman History, 65-50 B.C.: Five Problems”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 52, Parts 1 and 2,134-141.
  • Broughton 1936 Broughton, T. R. S., “On Two Passages of Cicero Referring to Local Taxes in Asia”, The American Journal of Philology, Vol. 57, No. 2,173-176.
  • Brunt 1981 Brunt, P. A., “Review: The Revenues of Rome, Reviewed Work(s):Untersuchungen zu den Direkten Staatsabgaben der Romischen Kaiserzeit (27 V. Chr.--284 N.Chr.) by Lutz Neesen”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 71, 161-172.
  • Cic, Off. M. Tullius Cicero: De Officiis: On Duties, edited by M. T. Griffin and E. M. Atkins, London 1913 (Cambridge University Press).
  • Cic. Q. Fr. M. Tullius Cicero, Epistulae ad Quintum fratrem: The Letters to His Brother Quintus, translated by W. Glynn Williams, London 1972 (The Loeb Classical Library).
  • Cic., ad Att. M. Tullius Cicero, Epistulae ad Atticum: Cicero’s Letters to Atticus, translated by D. R. Shackleton Bailey, Cambridge 1978 (Penguin Classics).
  • Cic., ad fam. M. Tullius Cicero, Epistulae ad familiares: Cicero’s Letters to His Friends, translated by D. R. Shackleton Bailey, Cambridge 1978 (Penguin Classics).
  • Cic., De imp.Cn.Pomp. M. Tullius Cicero, De Imperio Cn Pompei Ad Quirites Oratio (pro Lege Manilia), edited by C. Macdonald, Bristol 1986.
  • Cic., Flac. M. Tullius Cicero, Pro Flacco: The Speeches (In Catilinam I-IV - Pro Murena - Pro Sulla - Pro Flacco), translated by Louis E. Lord, London 1946, (The Loeb Classical Library)
  • Cic., Orat. M. Tullius Cicero, Orator M. Brutum: M. Tulli Ciceronis Brutus, edited by A. E. Douglas, Oxford 1966 (Clarendon Press ).
  • Cic., Q. Fr. M. Tullius Cicero, Epistulae ad Quintum fratrem: The Letters to His Brother Quintus, translated by W. Glynn Williams, London 1972 (The Loeb Classical Library)
  • Cobban 1935 Cobban, B.B., Senate and Provinces (78-49 BC), Cambridge. Frank 1933 Frank, T., “On Some Financial Legislation of the Sullan Period”, The American Journal of Philology, Vol. 54, No. 1, 54-58.
  • Guite 1962 Guite, H., “Cicero’s Attitude to the Greeks”, Greece & Rome, 2nd Ser., Vol. 9, No. 2., 142-159.
  • Hawthorn 1962 Hawthorn, J. R., “The Senate after Sula”, Greece & Rome, 2nd Ser., Vol. 9, No. 1, 53-60.
  • Holmes 1923 Holmes, T. R., The Roman Republic and The Founder of the Empire, I-III, Oxford.
  • Holy Bible 1991 The Holy Bible, (The King James Version), revised and authorised by Samuel Bagster, London.
  • Hopkins 1980 Hopkins, K., “Taxes and Trade in the Roman Empire (200 B.C.- A.D. 400)”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 70,101-125.
  • Hopwood 1999 Hopwood, K., “Review: Life after Finley?, Reviewed Work(s):Roman Urbanism: Beyond the Consumer City by H. M. Parkins”, The Classical Review, New Ser., Vol. 49, No. 1, 197-199.
  • Howgego 1992 Howgego, C., “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. to A.D. 300”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 82, 1-31.
  • Hunter 1913 Hunter, L. W., “Cicero’s Journey to His Province of Cilicia in 51 B.C.”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 3, Part 1, 73-97.
  • Jones 1974 Jones, A. H. M., The Roman Economy, edited by P.A. Brunt, (Oxford ).
  • Marshall 1964 Marshall, A. J., “Cicero’s Letter to Cyprus”, Phoenix 18, No. 3, 206- 215.
  • Marshall 1966 Marshall, A. J., “Governors On The Move”, Phoenix 20, 231-246.
  • Marshall 1972 Marshall, A. J., “The lex Pompeia de provinciis (52 BC) and Cicero’s imperium in 51-50 BC: constitutional aspects”, ANRW I.I, 887-921.
  • Mitchell 1991 Mitchell, T. N., Cicero. The Senior Statesman, London. Mitchell 1979 Mitchell, S., “R.E.C.A.M. Notes and Studies No. 5: A Roman Family in Phrygia”, Anatolian Studies, Vol. 29, 13-22.
  • North 1981 North, J. A., “The Development of Roman Imperialism”, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 71, 1-9.
  • Özbayoğlu 1998 Özbayoğlu, E., “Cicero’nun, Panter Avına İlişkin Birkaç Cilicia Mektubu”, Olba, Mersin Üniversitesi Kilikia Arkeolojisini Araştırma Merkezi Yayınları I, 131-138.
  • Plut. Cic. Plutarkhos, Cicero: Plutarch, The Life of Cicero, translated by J. L. Moles, Warminster 1988.
  • Plut., Luc. Plutarkhos, Lucullus: Plutarch’s Lives, in eleven volumes II: Themistokles and Camillus Aristides and Cato Major, Cimon and Lucullus, London, New York 1928. (The Loeb Classical Library). Rawson 1975 Rawson, E., Cicero. A Portrait, Bristol.
  • Rowland 1972 Rowland, R. J., “Cicero and the Greek World”, Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, Vol. 103, 451-461.
  • Sen. Ir. L. A. Senaca, De Ira: Moral Essays (De Providentia. De Constantia. De Ira. De Clementia), translated by John W. Basore, Vol. I, London 1953 (The Loeb Classical Library).
  • Shaw 1990 Shaw, B. D., “Bandit Highlands and Lowland Peace: The Mountains of Isauria-Cilicia”, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, Vol. 33, No. 2., 199-233.
  • Sherwin-White 1984 Sherwin-White, A. N., Roman Foreign Policy in the East (168 BC to AD 1), London.
  • Smethurst 1953 Smethurst, S. E., “ Cicero and Roman Imperial Policy”, Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, Vol. 84, 216-226.
  • Smethurst 1958 Smethurst, S. E., “Cicero and the Senate”, The Classical Journal, Vol. 54, No. 2.,73-78.
  • Smith 1966 Smith, R. E., Cicero The Statesman, Cambridge. Stockton 1971 Stockton, D., Cicero. A Political Biography, Oxford. Syme 1979 Syme, R., “Observations on the province of Cilicia”, Roman Papers, vol. I ,Oxford , 121-148.
  • Tan 2007 Tan, T., Financing an Empire (Banking, Borses and Capital Markets of the Roman Republic), Advisor Richord A. Billows, thesis submitted to the Comubia University, Department of History, New York.
  • Thompson 1965 Thompson, L. A., “Cicero’s Succession-Problem in Cilicia”, The American Journal of Philology, Vol. 86, No. 4, 375-386.
  • Warmington 1972 Warmington, B. H., “Review: [Untitled], Reviewed Work(s):Roman Imperialism in the Late Republic by E. Badian”, The International Journal of African Historical Studies, Vol. 5, No. 1,114-116.
Toplam 44 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil İngilizce
Bölüm Araştırma Makalesi
Yazarlar

Hatice Palaz Erdemir Bu kişi benim

Yayımlanma Tarihi 1 Mayıs 2009
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2009 Sayı: 17

Kaynak Göster

APA Palaz Erdemir, H. (2009). ECONOMIC MANAGEMENT OF CILICIA IN THE TIME OF CICERO. OLBA(17), 131-156.