Examining the Impact of Distributed Leadership on Teacher Leadership in Secondary Education in China: A Structural Equation Modeling Approach

Year 2025, Volume: 12 Issue: 2, 283 - 301

Le Song , Lokman Bin Mohd Tahir , Roslizam Hassan , Hongli Chen

https://doi.org/10.17275/per.25.30.12.2

Abstract

This study investigates the intricate relationship between distributed leadership and teacher leadership within secondary schools in China, emphasizing its relevance in a context marked by traditional hierarchical structures. Utilizing a structural equation model (SEM), quantitative data were collected from a sample of 425 secondary school teachers situated in southern China during the academic year 2022–2023. The findings reveal that distributed leadership exerts a significant positive influence on all dimensions of teacher leadership, which include promoting professional learning, focusing on learning processes, encouraging collegial collaboration, engaging in decision-making, and liaising with external affiliations. Notably, the dimension of engaging in decision-making exhibited the most substantial impact. This study underscores the critical role of distributed leadership in enhancing teacher leadership, particularly in the unique educational landscape of Chinese secondary schools. By contributing empirical evidence to the expanding literature on distributed leadership, especially within non-Western contexts, this research highlights the imperative of empowering teachers as key stakeholders in school management. The findings emphasize the critical role of principals in aligning school objectives, talent development, and organizational structure through distributed leadership. Policies should prioritize teacher engagement in decision-making, professional learning, and collaboration while leveraging external resources. Empowering teachers with greater autonomy and involving them in school governance can enhance their professional growth and improve overall teaching quality, demonstrating the transformative impact of distributed leadership on teacher leadership development.

Keywords

：Distributed Leadership, Teacher Leadership, Secondary Schools, Teacher Leaders

References

• Alkrdem, M. (2020). Contemporary Educational Leadership and its Role in Converting Traditional Schools into Professional Learning Communities. International Journal of Educational Leadership and Management, 8(2), 144-171. https://doi.org/10.17583/ijelm.2020.4298
• Anderson, W. (2019). Comparison of female teachers in primary, secondary, and tertiary education: China and the world. ECNU Review of Education, 2(2), 246-250. https://doi.org/10.1177/2096531119853664
• Angelle, P. S., & DeHart, C. A. (2011). Teacher perceptions of teacher leadership: Examining differences by experience, degree, and position. Nassp Bulletin, 95(2), 141-160. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192636511415397
• Arnzen, C. J., & Houston, D. M. (2023). Who Should Control Education Now? Revisiting Preferences for Local Control in Educational Decision Making. Peabody Journal of Education, 98(5), 516-532. https://doi.org/10.1080/0161956X.2023.2261315
• Awang,Z. Research Methodology and Data Analysis, 2nd ed. UiTM Press, 2012.
• Bellibaş, M. Ş., Gümüş, S., & Kılınç, A. Ç. (2020). Principals supporting teacher leadership: The effects of learning‐centred leadership on teacher leadership practices with the mediating role of teacher agency. European journal of education, 55(2), 200-216. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12387
• Bellibaş, M. Ş., Gümüş, S., & Liu, Y. (2021). Does school leadership matter for teachers’ classroom practice? The influence of instructional leadership and distributed leadership on instructional quality. School effectiveness and school improvement, 32(3), 387-412. https://doi.org/10.1080/09243453.2020.1858119
• Brown, M., Altrichter, H., Shiyan, I., Rodríguez Conde, M. J., McNamara, G., Herzog-Punzenberger, B., ... & Sánchez, L. (2022). Challenges and opportunities for culturally responsive leadership in schools: Evidence from Four European countries. Policy Futures in Education, 20(5), 580-607. https://doi.org/10.1177/147821032110409
• Campbell, T., Wenner, J. A., Brandon, L., & Waszkelewicz, M. (2022). A community of practice model as a theoretical perspective for teacher leadership. International Journal of Leadership in Education, 25(2), 173-196. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603124.2019.1643500
• Chen, J. (2022). Understanding teacher leaders’ behaviors: Development and validation of the Teacher Leadership Inventory. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 50(4), 630–648. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 17411 43220945704
• Chen, L., & Zhang, J. (2024). Exploring the role and practice of teacher leaders in professional learning communities in China: A case study of a Shanghai secondary school. Educational Studies, 50(5), 1034-1052. https://doi.org/10.1080/03055698.2022.2026297
• Cheng, A. Y., & Szeto, E. (2016). Teacher leadership development and principal facilitation: Novice teachers’ perspectives. Teaching and teacher education, 58, 140-148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2016.05.003
• Çoban, Ö., & Atasoy, R. (2020). Relationship between distributed leadership, teacher collaboration and organizational innovativeness. International Journal of Evaluation and Research in Education, 9(4), https://dx.doi.org/903-911.10.11591/ijere.v9i4.20679
• Creswell, J. W. (2021). A concise introduction to mixed methods research. SAGE publications.
• Danielson, C. (2006). Teacher leadership that strengthens professional practice. ASCD.
• Dhaliwal, T. K., & Bruno, P. (2021). The rural/nonrural divide? K–12 district spending and implications of equity-based school funding. aera Open, 7, 2332858420982549. https://doi.org/10.1177/2332858420982549
• Doty, C. L. (2024). The Influence of Informal Teacher Leadership and Social Networks on Teacher Self-Efficacy in Rural Schools (Doctoral dissertation, Lincoln Memorial University).
• Gao, R., & Wu, G. (Eds.). (2018).China's Education Reform: Current Issues and New Horizons (Vol. 4). World Scientific Publishing.
• Gronn, P. (2002). Distributed leadership as a unit of analysis. Leadership Quarterly, 13(4-5), 423-451. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1048-9843(02)00130-6
• Gronn, P. (2008). The future of distributed leadership. Journal of educational administration, 46(2), 141-158. https://doi.org/10.1108/09578230810863235
• Guo, S. (2022, December). Gaokao examination influences senior high school education to some extent, resulting in the senior high school education bringing many negative effects to its students. In 2022 5th International Conference on Humanities Education and Social Sciences (ICHESS 2022) (pp. 1976-1983). Atlantis Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.2991/978-2-494069-89-3_225
• Han, F. (2022). Gaokao Students’ Subjective Well-Being and Their Pursuit of Higher Education (Doctoral dissertation, The Chinese University of Hong Kong (Hong Kong)).
• Harris, A. (2003). Teacher leadership as distributed leadership: Heresy, fantasy or possibility?. School leadership & management, 23(3), 313-324. https://doi.org/10.1080/1363243032000112801
• Harris, A. (2014). Distributed leadership matters. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
• Hayes AF (2009) Beyond Baron and Kenny: Statistical mediation analysis in the new millennium. Communication Monographs 76(4): 408–420. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637750903310360
• Hu LT and Bentler PM (1999) Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling 6(1): 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
• Hulpia, H., Devos, G., & Rosseel, Y. (2009). The relationship between the perception of distributed leadership in secondary schools and teachers' and teacher leaders' job satisfaction and organizational commitment. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 20(3), 291-317. https://doi.org/10.1080/09243450902909840
• Huo, Y. (2004). Le lycée en Chine (1922-2002).Histoire de l’éducation, (101), 67-85. https://doi.org/10.4000/histoire-education.727
• Kasapoglu, H., & Karaca, B. (2021). Teachers' Views on Teacher Leadership: A Qualitative Analysis. International Journal of Progressive Education, 17(6), 66-82. https://dx.doi.org/10.29329/ijpe.2021.382.5
• Kilag, O. K., Tokong, C., Enriquez, B., Deiparine, J., Purisima, R., & Zamora, M. (2023). School Leaders: The Extent of Management Empowerment and Its Impact on Teacher and School Effectiveness. Excellencia: International Multi-disciplinary Journal of Education (2994-9521), 1(1), 127-140.
• Kilicoglu, G., & Kilicoglu, D. (2020). The birth of a new paradigm: Rethinking education and school leadership with a metamodern ‘lens’. Studies in Philosophy and Education, 39(5), 493-514. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11217-019-09690-z
• Kline, R. B. (2023). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. Guilford publications.
• Lee, D. H. L., & Ip, N. K. K. (2023). The influence of professional learning communities on informal teacher leadership in a Chinese hierarchical school context. Educational management administration & leadership, 51(2), 324-344. https://doi.org/10.1177/1741143220985159
• Lee, D. S. (2019). China's K-12 teacher qualification system. Jurnal Penelitian dan Evaluasi Pendidikan, 23(1), 76-86. https://doi.org/10.21831/pep.v23i1.24065
• Leithwood, K. A., Mascall, B., & Strauss, T. (Eds.). (2009). Distributed leadership according to the evidence (pp. 223-251). New York: Routledge.
• Leithwood, K. A., Mascall, B., Strauss, T., Sacks, R., Memon, N., & Yashkina, A. (2007). Distributing leadership to make schools smarter: Taking the ego out of the system. Leadership and Policy in Schools, 6(1), 37–67. https://doi. org/10.1080/15700760601091267
• Leithwood, K., Anderson, S., Mascall, B., & Strauss, T. (2010). School leaders’ influences on student learning: The four paths. The principles of educational leadership and management, 2, 13-30.
• Li, J. (2023). A research on relationship between student-centered approach and student competence development in higher education: case studies in China and Italy.
• Limon, İ., Dilekç, Ü., & Demirer, S. (2021). The Mediating Role of Initiative Climate on the Relationship between Distributed Leadership and Organizational Resilience in Schools. International Journal of Contemporary Educational Research, 8(1), 128-144. https://doi.org/10.33200/ijcer.829411
• Little, J. W. (2003). Constructions of teacher leadership in three periods of policy and reform activism. Educational Administration Quarterly, 39(1), 76-105. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013161X02239598
• Liu, Y., Bellibas, M. S., & Printy, S. (2018). How school context and educator characteristics predict distributed leadership: A hierarchical structural equation model with 2013 TALIS data. Educational Management Administration & Leadership,46(3), 401–423.
• Mangin, M. M. (2016). Teacher leadership and high-stakes teacher evaluation: complementary or conflicting approaches to improvement?. Journal of school leadership, 26(6), 938-974. https://doi.org/10.1177/1741143216665839
• Martin, D. E., & Coleman, D. A. (2011). Distribution of clump statistics for a collection of words. Journal of applied probability, 48(4), https://dx.doi.org/1049-1059.10.1239/jap/1324046018
• Ministry of Education (2012) Minister of Education’s Notice on “Professional Standards for K-9 Principals”. Available at: http://www.moe.gov.cn/srcsite/ A10/s7151/201302/t 201302 16_147899. html (in Chinese) (accessed 28 May 2023).
• Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China. (2023). Number of Educational Personnel in General Secondary Schools. Retrieved from http://en.moe.gov.cn/documents/statistics/2022/national/202401/t20240112_1099931.html
• Muijs, D., & Harris, A. (2006). Teacher led school improvement: Teacher leadership in the UK. Teaching and Teacher Education, 22(8), 961–972. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2006.04.010
• Murphy, G., & Brennan, T. (2024). Enacting distributed leadership in the republic of Ireland: Assessing primary school principals’ developmental needs using constructive developmental theory. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 52(3), 666-685. https://doi.org/10.1177/17411432221086850
• Murray, N., Liddicoat, A. J., Zhen, G., & Mosavian, P. (2023). Constraints on innovation in English language teaching in hinterland regions of China. Language Teaching Research, 27(5), 1246-1267. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168820979
• Nadeem, M. (2024). Distributed leadership in educational contexts: A catalyst for school improvement. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 9, 100835. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2024.100835
• Nguyen, D., Harris, A., & Ng, D. (2020). A review of the empirical research on teacher leadership (2003–2017) Evidence, patterns and implications. Journal of educational administration, 58(1), 60-80. https://doi.org/10.1108/JEA-02-2018-0023
• Nunnally,Jc., & Ih, Bernstein. (1994). Psychometric theory. New York, 35.
• Paletta, A., Basyte Ferrari, E., & Alimehmeti, G. (2020). How principals use a new accountability system to promote change in teacher practices: Evidence from Italy. Educational administration quarterly, 56(1), 123-173. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013161X19840398
• Pallant, J. (2020). SPSS survival manual: A step by step guide to data analysis using IBM SPSS. Routledge.
• Pineda-Báez, C., Bauman, C., & Andrews, D. (2020). Empowering teacher leadership: a cross-country study. International Journal of Leadership in Education. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603124.2018.1543804
• Printy, S., & Liu, Y. (2021). Distributed leadership globally: The interactive nature of principal and teacher leadership in 32 countries. Educational administration quarterly, 57(2), 290-325. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013161X20926548
• Qian, H., Walker, A., & Yang, X. (2017). Building and leading a learning culture among teachers: A case study of a Shanghai primary school. Educational Management Administration & Leadership,45(1), 101–122. https://doi.org/10.1177/1741143215623785
• Sebastian, J., Huang, H., & Allensworth, E. (2017). Examining integrated leadership systems in high schools: Connecting principal and teacher leadership to organizational processes and student outcomes. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 28(3), 463-488. https://doi.org/10.1080/09243453.2017.1319392
• Shengnan, L., & Hallinger, P. (2021). Unpacking the effects of culture on school leadership and teacher learning in China. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 49(2), 214-233. https://doi.org/10.1177/1741143219896042
• Spillane, J. P. (2005, June). Distributed leadership. In The educational forum (Vol. 69, No. 2, pp. 143-150). Taylor & Francis Group. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131720508984678
• Spillane, J. P., Halverson, R., & Diamond, J. B. (2004). Towards a theory of leadership practice: A distributed perspective. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 36(1), 3–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/0022027X.2004.9950020
• Stein, K. C., Macaluso, M., & Stanulis, R. N. (2016). The interplay between principal leadership and teacher leader efficacy. Journal of School Leadership, 26(6), 1002-1032. https://doi.org/10.1177/105268461602600605
• Tian, M., Risku, M., & Collin, K. (2016). A meta-analysis of distributed leadership from 2002 to 2013: Theory development, empirical evidence and future research focus. Educational Management Administration & Leadership,44(1), 146–164. https://doi.org/10.1177/1741143214558576
• Torres, D. G. (2019). Distributed leadership, professional collaboration, and teachers’ job satisfaction in US schools. Teaching and teacher education, 79, 111-123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2018.12.001
• Traver-Marti, J. A., Ballesteros-Velazquez, B., Beldarrain, N. O., & Maiquez, M. D. C. C. (2023). Leading the curriculum towards social change: Distributed leadership and the inclusive school. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 51(3), 554-574. https://doi.org/10.1177/1741143221991849
• Webber, C. F., & Nickel, J. (2021). Sustainable teacher leadership. Research in Educational Administration & Leadership, 6(1), https://dx.doi.org/10.30828/real/2021.1.9
• Weiner, J. M., & Lamb, A. J. (2020). Exploring the possibilities and limits to transfer and learning: Examining a teacher leadership initiative using the theory of action framework. Journal of Educational Change, 21(2), 267-297. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10833-020-09378-z
• Wenner, J. A., & Campbell, T. (2017). The theoretical and empirical basis of teacher leadership: A Review of the literature. Review of Educational Research, 87(1), 134–171. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654316653478
• Wilkins, C., Gobby, B., & Keddie, A. (2021). The neo-performative teacher: School reform, entrepreneurialism and the pursuit of educational equity. British Journal of Educational Studies, 69(1), 27-45. https://doi.org/10.1080/00071005.2020.1739621
• Wong JLN (2010). Searching for good practice in teaching: A comparison of two subject-based professional learning communities in a secondary school in Shanghai. Compare 40(5): 623–639. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057920903553308
• Woodhouse, J., & Pedder, D. (2017). Early career teachers’ perceptions and experiences of leadership development: balancing structure and agency in contrasting school contexts. Research Papers in Education, 32(5), 553-577. https://doi.org/10.1080/02671522.2016.1225794
• Xie, C., Song, P., & Hu, H. (2021). Measuring teacher leadership in different domains of practice: Development and validation of the teacher leadership scale. The Asia-pacific Education Researcher, 30, 409-419. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-020-00527-9
• York-Barr, A. J., & Duke, K. (2004). What do we know about teacher leadership? Findings from two decades of scholarship. Review of Educational Research, 74(3), 255–316. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543074003255
• Zhang J and Pang NSK (2016). Exploring the characteristics of professional learning communities in China: A mixed-method study. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher 25(1): 11–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-015-0228-3
• Zhang, X., Wen, D., Liang, J., & Lei, J. (2017). How the public uses social media wechat to obtain health information in china: a survey study. BMC medical informatics and decision making, 17, 71-79. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12911-017-0470-0
• Zheng, X., Yin, H., & Liu, Y. (2019). The relationship between distributed leadership and teacher efficacy in China: The mediation of satisfaction and trust. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 28, 509-518. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-019-00451-7