Partisan Journalists on Duty: Political Gnosticism as a Means of Legitimating Quasi-militant Democracy in Crisis-driven Poland

Yıl 2021, Cilt: 30 Sayı: 2, 207 - 224, 30.10.2021

Joanna Rak

https://doi.org/10.26650/siyasal.2021.30.979419

Öz

Embedded in the theory of political gnosticism and drawing upon a qualitative content analysis of 246 pieces of news released by state media, this article examines a means of legitimating anti-democratic measures deployed during the first wave of the Covid-19 pandemic in Poland. The research aims to identify and explain the nature and origins of justification frames for quasi-militant democracy. The main argument is that journalists of the most popular state television, TVP Info, used political gnosticism to legitimate quasi-militant democracy. They exploited fears of losing one’s life and health to convince citizens that the limitations of civil liberties are germane to survival and development. The research shows that the occurrence of all essential components of political gnosticism, used to justify anti-democratic actions in state media, is one of the indicators of anti-democratic changes in the political structure. It also provides insight regarding the theory of democratic erosion at a level of freedom of the press by offering evidence confirming the counter-democratic nature of quasi-militant democratic consolidation.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Partisan journalism, Political gnosticism, Militant democracy, Legitimacy, Coronavirus Crisis, Poland

Destekleyen Kurum

National Science Centre, Poland

Proje Numarası

2018/31/B/HS5/01410

Teşekkür

This research paper is a result of the research project Contentious Politics and Neo-Militant Democracy. It was financially supported by the National Science Centre, Poland [grant number 2018/31/B/HS5/01410].

Kaynakça

• Aron, R. (2003). The Dawn of Universal History: Selected Essays from a Witness to the Twentieth Century. New York, NY: Basic Books.
• Bowen, G. A. (2009). Document Analysis as a Qualitative Research Method. Qualitative Research Journal, 9(2), 27–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.3316/QRJ0902027
• IMM. (2020). The Most Opinion-forming Media in 2020. https://www.imm.com.pl/tag/najbardziej-opiniotworcze-media/ [Accessed: 5 August 2021]
• Invernizzi Accetti, C., & Zuckerman I. (2017). What’s Wrong with Militant Democracy? Political Studies, 65(1S), 182–199. https://doi.org/10.1177/0032321715614849
• Loewenstein, K. (1937). Militant Democracy and Fundamental Rights, I. The American Political Science Review, 31(3), 417–432. https://doi.org/10.2307/1948164
• Maier, H. (2007). Political Religion: A Concept and Its Limitations. Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions, 8(1), 5–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/14690760601121614
• Malkopoulou, A. (2019). Militant Democracy and Its Critics.” In A. Malkopoulou & A. S. Kirshner (Eds.), Militant Democracy and Its Critics: Populism, Parties, Extremism (pp. 1–12). Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press.
• Markowski, R. (2018). Backsliding into Authoritarian Clientelism: The Case of Poland. In P. Guasti & Z. Mansfeldová (Eds.), Democracy Under Stress: Changing Perspectives on Democracy, Governance and Their Measurement (pp. 95–118). Prague: Institute of Sociology of the Czech Academy of Sciences.
• Markowski, R. (2020). Plurality Support for Democratic Decay: The 2019 Polish Parliamentary Election. West European Politics, 43(7), 1513–1525. https://doi.org/10.1080/01402382.2020.1720171
• Payne, S. G. (2005). On the Heuristic Value of the Concept of Political Religion and Its Application. Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions, 6(2), 163–174.
• Pfersmann, O. (2004). “Shaping Militant Democracy: Legal Limits to Democratic Stability.” In A. Sajó (Ed.), Militant Democracy (pp. 47–68). Utrecht: Eleven International Publishing.
• Rak, J. (2017). Justifying the Use of Violence: A Gnostic Deconstruction of a Political Universe. In J. Diec (Ed.) Deconstruction of Natural Order: The Legacy of the Russian Revolution (pp. 97–119). Kraków: Księgarnia Akademicka [Academic Bookshop].
• Riegel, K.-G. (2007). Marxism-Leninism as Political Religion.” In H. Maier & M. Schäfer (Eds.) Totalitarianism and Political Religions. Volume II: Concepts for the Comparison of Dictatorships (pp. 61–112). London and New York: Routledge.
• Shaqiri, M. (2019). The Elements of Political Religion in the Post-conflict Society of Kosovo. Journal for the Study of Religions and Ideologies, 18(52), 110–124.
• Shorten, R. (2007). “The Status of Ideology in the Return of Political Religion Theory. Journal of Political Ideologies, 12(2), 163–187. https://doi.org/10.1080/13569310701285016
• TVP Info. (2020a). The First News: W walce z epidemią Polska wykonała lepszą robotę niż zamożniejsze kraje UE [The First News: In the Fight Against the Epidemic, Poland Has Done a Better Job than the Richer EU Countries]. May 3. https://www.tvp.info/47856178/the-first-news-w-walce-z-epidemia-polska-wykonala-lepsza-robote-niz-zamozniejsze-kraje-ue [Accessed: 5 August 2021]
• TVP Info. (2020b). Andrzej Duda. https://www.tvp.info/47653470/andrzej-duda [Accessed: 5 August 2021]
• TVP Info. (2020c). Dodatkowe ograniczenia w przemieszczaniu się. Poznaj szczegóły [Additional Movement Restrictions. Get the Details]. March 24. https://www.tvp.info/47254028/nowe-ograniczenia-w-przemieszczaniu-sie-poznaj-szczegoly-wieszwiecej [Accessed: 5 August 2021]
• TVP Info. (2020d). Droga krzyżowa w czasach koronawirusa: Kościół zaprasza na transmisje online [Stations of the Cross in the Coronavirus Age: The Church Invites You to Broadcast Online]. March 27. https://www.tvp.info/47301898/koronawirus-zakaz-wychodzenia-z-domu-w-polsce-droga-krzyzowa-w-internecie-kosciol-zaprasza-na-transmisje-online-wieszwiecej [Accessed: 5 August 2021]
• TVP Info. (2020e). Izolacja wywołała rewolucję w komunikowaniu [Isolation Sparked a Revolution in Communication]. April 15. https://www.tvp.info/47574280/koronawirus-polska-wirtualne-zycie-toczy-sie-bez-dystansowania-spolecznego-wieszwiecej [Accessed: 5 August 2021]
• TVP Info. (2020f). Koronawirus przepłoszył większość przestępców, ale nie oszustów [The Coronavirus Scared Away Most Criminals, But Not the Scammers]. April 1. https://www.tvp.info/47373193/koronawirus-przeploszyl-wiekszosc-przestepcow-ale-nie-oszustow [Accessed: 5 August 2021]
• TVP Info. (2020g). Marszałek Grodzki lekceważy zagrożenie [Marshal Grodzki Disregards the Threat]. March 12. https://wiadomosci.tvp.pl/47098120/marszalek-grodzki-lekcewazy-zagrozenie [Accessed: 5 August 2021]
• TVP Info. (2020h). Minister Szumowski komentuje zachowanie brytyjskiego rządu ws. epidemii [Minister Szumowski Comments on the Behavior of the British Government Regarding the Epidemic]. March 16. https://www.tvp.info/47142704/szumowski-o-rzadzie-wielkiej-brytanii-i-ich-dzialaniach-wz-z-koronawirusem-wieszwiecej [Accessed: 5 August 2021]
• TVP Info. (2020i). Nastolatki złamały zakaz zgromadzeń w związku z koronawirusem. Słono zapłacą [Teenagers Have Broken the Assembly Ban over the Coronavirus. They Will Pay Dearly]. March 27. https://www.tvp.info/47301137/koronawirus-malbork-zakaz-wychodzenia-z-domu-nastolatki-zlamaly-zakaz-zgromadzen-wieszwiecej [Accessed: 5 August 2021]
• TVP Info. (2020j). Nielegalne zgromadzenie Obywateli RP przed Sejmem. Mandaty, wnioski do sądu [Illegal Assembly of Polish Citizens Before the Sejm. Fines, Court Applications]. May 7. https://www.tvp.info/47927445/protest-obywateli-rp-przed-sejmem-policja-nielegalne-spontaniczne-zgromadzenie-sa-mandaty-i-wnioski-do-sadu-wieszwiecej [Accessed: 5 August 2021]
• TVP Info. (2020k). Poseł KO mówi o zamkniętych sklepach i wojsku na ulicach. ‘Takie fake newsy powinny być karalne’ [KO MP Talks About Closed Shops and the Army in the Streets. ‘Such Fake News Should Be Punishable’]. March 13. https://www.tvp.info/47112848/koronawirus-politycy-opozycji-powtarzaja-nieprawdziwe-informacje-wieszwiecej [Accessed: 5 August 2021]
• TVP Info. (2020l). Poseł KO o koczowisku KOD przed Sejmem: Lepiej jakby zostali w domach [KO Deputy About the Camp KOD Before the Sejm: Better if They Stayed at Home]. March 31. https://www.tvp.info/47359253/koronawirus-nawet-politycy-opozycji-twierdza-ze-dzialacze-kod-powinni-zawiesic-protest-wieszwiecej [Accessed: 5 August 2021]
• TVP Info. (2020m). Premier: Jako jedni z pierwszych przywracamy granice z UE [Prime Minister: We Are One of the First to Restore the Borders with the EU]. March 13. https://www.tvp.info/47114910/premier-o-zaostrzeniu-walki-z-koronawirusem-wieszwiecej [Accessed: 5 August 2021]
• TVP Info. (2020n). Prezydent: Jeśli koronawirus będzie się rozprzestrzeniał – możliwy zakaz zgromadzeń [President: If the Coronavirus Continues to Spread – Possible Ban on Gatherings]. March 4. https://www.tvp.info/46967952/prezydent-jesli-koronawirus-bedzie-sie-rozprzestrzenial-mozliwy-zakaz-zgromadzen [Accessed: 5 August 2021]
• TVP Info. (2020o). Protest przedsiębiorców. Kilku uczestników zatrzymanych; dwóch policjantów rannych [Entrepreneurs’ Protest. Several Participants Detained; Two Policemen Injured]. May 8. https://www.tvp.info/47953515/protest-przedsiebiorcow-kilku-uczestnikow-zatrzymanych-dwoch-policjantow-rannych [Accessed: 5 August 2021]
• TVP Info. (2020p). Sanepid nałożył kary na uczestników protestów przedsiębiorców [Sanepid Imposed Penalties on the Participants of the Protests of Entrepreneurs]. May 12. https://www.tvp.info/48008267/sanepid-nalozyl-kary-pieniezne-na-niektorych-uczestnikow-ubieglotygodniowych-protestow-przedsiebiorcow-w-warszawie-wieszwiecej [Accessed: 5 August 2021]
• TVP Info. (2020q). Szef BBN: Nie ma obecnie potrzeby wprowadzania stanu wyjątkowego [BBN Chief: There Is No Need to Introduce a State of Emergency at the Moment]. March 14. https://www.tvp.info/47123963/pawel-soloch-nie-ma-obecnie-potrzeby-wprowadzania-stanu-wyjatkowego-wieszwiecej [Accessed: 5 August 2021]
• TVP Info. (2020r). Szef MSWiA o wczorajszych działaniach policji: Podstawowym jej zadaniem jest egzekwowanie prawa [The Head of the Ministry of Interior and Administration on Yesterday’s Police Activities: Its Primary Task is to Enforce the Law]. May 17. https://www.tvp.info/48089664/mariusz-kaminski-podstawowym-jej-zadaniem-jest-egzekwowanie-prawa-wieszwiecej [Accessed: 5 August 2021]
• TVP Info. (2020s). Szumowski: Jest szansa na ograniczenie tempa wzrostu zakażeń [Szumowski: There is a Chance to Limit the Growth Rate of Infections]. March 16.
• https://www.tvp.info/47140845/minister-zdrowia-lukasz-szumowski-jest-szansa-na-ograniczenie-tempa-wzrostu-zakazen-koronawirusem-wieszwiecej [Accessed: 5 August 2021]
• TVP Info. (2020t). Zakaz wstępu do Lasu Kabackiego? Złożono interpelację [No Entry to the Kabacki Forest? An Interpellation Was Submitted]. March 25. https://www.tvp.info/47266747/warszawa-koronawirus-zakaz-wstepu-do-lasu-kabackiego-jest-interpelacja-wieszwiecej [Accessed: 5 August 2021]
• Voegelin, E. (1987). The New Science of Politics: An Introduction. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press.