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How Can Gestalt-Integrated Group Help Strengthen Your Self-Compassion?

Yıl 2023, Cilt: 8 Sayı: 2, 147 - 160, 15.06.2023

Öz

Self-compassion is the ability to direct kindness towards oneself. Gestalt therapy benefits from self-compassion so that clients re- enact and confront their emotional problems more gently. This study aimed to determine the effectiveness of the Gestalt Integrated Self- Compassion Development Program among university students. This quasi-experimental study used a pre-test, post-test design with a control group. This study was conducted on 20 undergraduate students with different levels of self-compassion. The research population has been selected with a convenient sampling technique and randomly assigned to experimental and control groups (n=10 in each group). The Gestalt Integrated Self-Compassion Development Program was applied to the experimental group in the context of 8-session- group counseling, while the control group was not involved in any intervention. The obtained data were analyzed with the Wilcoxon Signed Ranks and Mann-Whitney U tests. The findings indicated that The Gestalt Integrated Self-Compassion Development Program is a helpful intervention to increase university students’ self-compassion. However, more extensive studies are required to be carried out with different groups.

Kaynakça

  • Akın, Ü., Akın, A. & Abacı, R. (2007). Öz-duyarlık ölçeği: Geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalişması. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, (33), 1-10.
  • Aktaş, C. G., & Daş, C (2002). Factor structure, validity, and reliability of gestalt contact styles questionnaire revised on Turkish population. Journal of Gestalt Therapy, 1(1), 83-110. http://doi.org/10.5152/imj.2013.69672.
  • Barnard, L. K., & Curry, J. F. (2011). Self-compassion: conceptualizations, correlates, & interventions. Review of General Psychology, 15(4), 289–303. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025754
  • Beaumont, E. A. (2016). Building resilience by cultivating compassion. Healthcare Counselling and Psychotherapy Journal, 16(3), 22-27. http://www.bacphealthcare.org.uk/journal.php
  • Bennett-Goleman, T. (2001). Emotional alchemy: How the mind can heal the heart. Three Rivers Press. Bowman, C. (1998). Definitions of Gestalt therapy: Finding common ground. Gestalt Review, 2(2), 97–107. https://doi.org/10.2307/44390665 Breines, J. G., & Chen, S. (2012). Self-compassion increases self-improvement motivation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38(9), 1133–1143. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672445599
  • Brenninkmeijer, V., Lagerveld, S. E., Blonk, R. W., Schaufeli, W. B., & Wijngaards-de Meij, L. D. (2019). Predicting the effectiveness of work-focused CBT for common mental disorders: The influence of baseline self-efficacy, depression, and anxiety. Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation, 29, 31–41. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10926-018-9760-3
  • Coaston, S. C. (2017). Self-care through self-compassion: A balm for burnout. The Professional Counselor, 7(3), 285–297. https://doi.org/doi:10.15241/scc.7.3.285
  • Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research designs: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Sage. Crozier, D. (2014). Self-compassion. An introduction to self-compassion and its relevance in Gestalt therapy. Gestalt Journal of Australia and New Zealand, 10(2), 85–108.
  • Davidson, T. (2014). STRENGTH: A system of integration of solution-oriented and strength- based principles. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 36(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.17744/mehc.36.1.p0034451n14k4818
  • Day, E. (2016). Field attunement for a strong therapeutic alliance: A perspective from relational Gestalt psychotherapy. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 56(1), 77–94. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022167815569534
  • Elliott, R., Watson, J. C., Goldman, R. N., & Greenberg, L. S. (2004). Learning emotion-focused therapy: The process-experiential approach to change. American Psychological Association.
  • Germer, C. K., & Nef, K. D. (2019). Teaching the mindful self-compassion program: A guide for professionals. Guilford Press.
  • Gilbert, P. (2009). Introducing compassion-focused therapy. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, 15(3), 199–208. https://doi.org/10.1192/apt.bp.107.005264
  • Gold, E., & Zahm, S. (2018). Buddhist psychology and Gestalt therapy integrated: Psychotherapy for the 21st century. Metta Press.
  • Greenberg, L. S. (1983). Toward a task analysis of conflict resolution in Gestalt Therapy. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, and Practice, 20(2), 190-201. https://psycnet.apa.org/ doi/10.1037/h0088490
  • Greenberg, L. S., & Clarke, K. M. (1979). Differential effects of the two-chair experiment and empathic reflections at a conflict marker. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 26(1), 1-8. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-0167.26.1.1
  • Greenberg, L. S., & Watson, J. C. (2006). Emotion-focused therapy for depression. American Psychological Association.
  • Greenberg, L. S., Rice, L. N., & Elliott, R. (1993). Facilitating emotional change: relationship, emotion, and the process of change. Jason Aronson.
  • Greenberg, M. T., Domitrovich, C., & Bumbarger, B. (2001). The prevention of mental disorders in school-aged children: Current state of the field. Prevention & Treatment, 4(1), Article 1a. https://doi.org/10.1037/1522-3736.4.1.41a
  • Hycner, R., & Jacobs, L. (1995). The healing relationship in Gestalt therapy: A dialogic/self- psychology approach. Gestalt Journal Press.
  • Kennedy, D. (1998). Gestalt: A point of departure for personal spirituality. British Gestalt Journal, 7, 88-98. Kepner, J. I. (1982). Questionnaire measurement of personality styles from the theory of gestalt therapy. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Kent State University.
  • Kirby, J. N. (2017). Compassion interventions: The programmes, the evidence, and implications for research and practice. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 90(3), 432-455. https://doi.org/10.1111/papt.12104
  • Kirchner, M. (2000). Gestalt therapy theory: An overview. Gestalt!. (4)3.
  • Kirkpatrick, K. (2005). Enhancing Self Compassion Using a Gestalt Two- Chair Intervention. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Texas.
  • Kyvelou, A., Kassotaki-Maridaki, A., Antonopoulou, A., & Kleftaras, G. (2018). The impact of a Gestalt-based intervention program on the mindfulness skills, self–compassion and life satisfaction of undergraduate students. The 11th International Conference of Education, Research, and Innovation (pp.93-100).
  • Leary, M. R., Tate, E. B., Adams, C. E., Batts Allen, A., & Hancock, J. (2007). Self-compassion and reactions to unpleasant self-relevant events: The implications of treating oneself kindly. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(5), 887–904. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.5.887
  • Martin, J.R. (1997). Mindfulness: A proposed common factor. Journal of Psychotherapy Integration, 7, 291–312 https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOPI.0000010885.18025.bc
  • Nef, K., & Germer, C. (2013). A pilot study and randomized controlled trial of the mindful self-compassion program. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 69(1), 28–44. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.21923
  • Neff, K. (2003a). Self-compassion: An alternative conceptualization of a healthy attitude toward oneself. Self and Identity, 2(2), 85-101. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860309032
  • Neff, K. D. (2003b). The development and validation of a scale to measure self-compassion. Self and Identity, 2(3), 223-250. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860309027
  • Neff, K. D. (2004). Self-compassion and psychological well-being. Constructivism in the Human Sciences, 9(2), 27-38.
  • Neff, K., Kirkpatrick, K., & Rude, S. (2007). Self-compassion and adaptive psychological functioning. Journal of Research in Personality, 41, 139–154. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2006.03.004
  • Neff, K. D. (2008). Self-compassion: Moving beyond the pitfalls of a separate self-concept. In H. A. Wayment & J. J. Bauer (Eds.), Transcending self-interest: Psychological explorations of the quiet ego (pp. 95–105). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/11771-009
  • Neff, K. D. (2022). Self-compassion: Theory, method, research, and intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 74, 193-218. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-032420-031047
  • Neff, K. D., Kirkpatrick, K. L., & Rude, S. S. (2007). Self-compassion and adaptive psychological functioning. Journal of Research in Personality, 41(1), 139– 154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jrp.2006.03.004
  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). Rethinking rumination. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3(5), 400-424. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00088.x
  • Ogden, T. H. (1990). On potential space. In P. L. Giovacchini (Ed.), Tactics and techniques in psychoanalytic therapy, Vol. 3. The implications of Winnicott’s contributions (pp. 90–112). Jason Aronson.
  • Özyeşil, Z. (2011). Ünı̇versı̇te öğrencı̇lerı̇nı̇n öz-anlayış düzeylerı̇nı̇n bı̇lı̇nçlı̇ farkındalık kı̇şı̇lı̇k özellı̇klerı̇ ve bazı değı̇şkenler açısından ı̇ncelenmesı̇ [Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Selçuk Üniversitesi]. Yükseköğretim Kurulu Ulusal Tez Merkezi.
  • Papacostaki, M., (2012). Gestalt group therapy: A practical guide. Penn State University Press, 16(1), 115-117. https://doi.org/10.5325/gestaltreview.16.1.0115
  • Perls, F., Hefferline, G., & Goodman, P. (1951). Gestalt therapy. New York, 64(7), 19-313.
  • Perls, F. S. (1969). Ego, Hunger and Aggression: The Begining of Gestalt Therapy.
  • Prendergast, A., O’Leary, E., & O’Sullivan, K. (2001). Outcomes of a person-centred Gestalt group. The Irish Psychologist, 28(4), 41.
  • Rogers, C. R. (1961). On becoming a person. Houghton Mifflin.
  • Safran, J. D. (1998). Widening the scope of cognitive therapy: The moment-by-moment process. The Guilford Press.
  • Sokolov, M. A. (2020). Psycholinguistic benefits of asynchronous approach to distant learning amid heightened social anxiety and isolation. A Gestalt-dialectical perspective. In V. V. Levchenko (Eds.), L. A. Kozhevnikova & E. V. Postnikova. Foreign languages in the 21st century: current issues of linguistics and linguodidactics (pp. 117-128). Samara Publishing.
  • Suppes, B. (2021). Using self-compassion to influence romantic relationship satisfaction: A case study of women. Journal of Feminist Family Therapy, 33(3), 244-269. https://doi.org/10.1080/08952833.2021.1880185
  • Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2013). Using multivariate statistics: Pearson new international edition. Pearson Higher Education.
  • Williams, L. (2006). Spirituality and Gestalt: A Gestalt-transpersonal perspective. Gestalt Review, 10(1), 6-21. https://doi.org/10.5325/gestaltreview.10.1.0006
  • Understanding Self-Esteem and the Benefits of Gestalt Psychotherapy. (2020, November 20). Willingness. https://willingness.com.mt/understanding-self-security-and-the-benefits-of-gestalt-psychotherapy/
  • Winnicott, D. (1971). The location of cultural experience. In D. Winnicott (Ed.), Playing and Reality (pp. 112-129). Basic Books.
  • Yalom, I. D., & Terrazas, F. (1968). Group therapy for psychotic elderly patients. The American Journal of Nursing, 68(8), 1690-1694. https://doi.org/10.2307/3420975
  • Yontef, G. (2002). Proceso y Diálogo. Santiago de Chile. Cuatro Vientos Editorial.
  • Yontef, G. (2007). The power of the immediate moment in Gestalt therapy. Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy, 37(1), 17-23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10879-006-9030-0
  • Yontef, G., & Fairfield, M. (2008). Gestalt therapy. In K. Jordan (Ed.), The quick theory reference guide: A resource for expert and novice mental health professionals. Nova Science Publishers.
Yıl 2023, Cilt: 8 Sayı: 2, 147 - 160, 15.06.2023

Öz

Kaynakça

  • Akın, Ü., Akın, A. & Abacı, R. (2007). Öz-duyarlık ölçeği: Geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalişması. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, (33), 1-10.
  • Aktaş, C. G., & Daş, C (2002). Factor structure, validity, and reliability of gestalt contact styles questionnaire revised on Turkish population. Journal of Gestalt Therapy, 1(1), 83-110. http://doi.org/10.5152/imj.2013.69672.
  • Barnard, L. K., & Curry, J. F. (2011). Self-compassion: conceptualizations, correlates, & interventions. Review of General Psychology, 15(4), 289–303. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025754
  • Beaumont, E. A. (2016). Building resilience by cultivating compassion. Healthcare Counselling and Psychotherapy Journal, 16(3), 22-27. http://www.bacphealthcare.org.uk/journal.php
  • Bennett-Goleman, T. (2001). Emotional alchemy: How the mind can heal the heart. Three Rivers Press. Bowman, C. (1998). Definitions of Gestalt therapy: Finding common ground. Gestalt Review, 2(2), 97–107. https://doi.org/10.2307/44390665 Breines, J. G., & Chen, S. (2012). Self-compassion increases self-improvement motivation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38(9), 1133–1143. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672445599
  • Brenninkmeijer, V., Lagerveld, S. E., Blonk, R. W., Schaufeli, W. B., & Wijngaards-de Meij, L. D. (2019). Predicting the effectiveness of work-focused CBT for common mental disorders: The influence of baseline self-efficacy, depression, and anxiety. Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation, 29, 31–41. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10926-018-9760-3
  • Coaston, S. C. (2017). Self-care through self-compassion: A balm for burnout. The Professional Counselor, 7(3), 285–297. https://doi.org/doi:10.15241/scc.7.3.285
  • Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research designs: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Sage. Crozier, D. (2014). Self-compassion. An introduction to self-compassion and its relevance in Gestalt therapy. Gestalt Journal of Australia and New Zealand, 10(2), 85–108.
  • Davidson, T. (2014). STRENGTH: A system of integration of solution-oriented and strength- based principles. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 36(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.17744/mehc.36.1.p0034451n14k4818
  • Day, E. (2016). Field attunement for a strong therapeutic alliance: A perspective from relational Gestalt psychotherapy. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 56(1), 77–94. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022167815569534
  • Elliott, R., Watson, J. C., Goldman, R. N., & Greenberg, L. S. (2004). Learning emotion-focused therapy: The process-experiential approach to change. American Psychological Association.
  • Germer, C. K., & Nef, K. D. (2019). Teaching the mindful self-compassion program: A guide for professionals. Guilford Press.
  • Gilbert, P. (2009). Introducing compassion-focused therapy. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, 15(3), 199–208. https://doi.org/10.1192/apt.bp.107.005264
  • Gold, E., & Zahm, S. (2018). Buddhist psychology and Gestalt therapy integrated: Psychotherapy for the 21st century. Metta Press.
  • Greenberg, L. S. (1983). Toward a task analysis of conflict resolution in Gestalt Therapy. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, and Practice, 20(2), 190-201. https://psycnet.apa.org/ doi/10.1037/h0088490
  • Greenberg, L. S., & Clarke, K. M. (1979). Differential effects of the two-chair experiment and empathic reflections at a conflict marker. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 26(1), 1-8. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-0167.26.1.1
  • Greenberg, L. S., & Watson, J. C. (2006). Emotion-focused therapy for depression. American Psychological Association.
  • Greenberg, L. S., Rice, L. N., & Elliott, R. (1993). Facilitating emotional change: relationship, emotion, and the process of change. Jason Aronson.
  • Greenberg, M. T., Domitrovich, C., & Bumbarger, B. (2001). The prevention of mental disorders in school-aged children: Current state of the field. Prevention & Treatment, 4(1), Article 1a. https://doi.org/10.1037/1522-3736.4.1.41a
  • Hycner, R., & Jacobs, L. (1995). The healing relationship in Gestalt therapy: A dialogic/self- psychology approach. Gestalt Journal Press.
  • Kennedy, D. (1998). Gestalt: A point of departure for personal spirituality. British Gestalt Journal, 7, 88-98. Kepner, J. I. (1982). Questionnaire measurement of personality styles from the theory of gestalt therapy. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Kent State University.
  • Kirby, J. N. (2017). Compassion interventions: The programmes, the evidence, and implications for research and practice. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 90(3), 432-455. https://doi.org/10.1111/papt.12104
  • Kirchner, M. (2000). Gestalt therapy theory: An overview. Gestalt!. (4)3.
  • Kirkpatrick, K. (2005). Enhancing Self Compassion Using a Gestalt Two- Chair Intervention. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Texas.
  • Kyvelou, A., Kassotaki-Maridaki, A., Antonopoulou, A., & Kleftaras, G. (2018). The impact of a Gestalt-based intervention program on the mindfulness skills, self–compassion and life satisfaction of undergraduate students. The 11th International Conference of Education, Research, and Innovation (pp.93-100).
  • Leary, M. R., Tate, E. B., Adams, C. E., Batts Allen, A., & Hancock, J. (2007). Self-compassion and reactions to unpleasant self-relevant events: The implications of treating oneself kindly. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(5), 887–904. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.5.887
  • Martin, J.R. (1997). Mindfulness: A proposed common factor. Journal of Psychotherapy Integration, 7, 291–312 https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOPI.0000010885.18025.bc
  • Nef, K., & Germer, C. (2013). A pilot study and randomized controlled trial of the mindful self-compassion program. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 69(1), 28–44. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.21923
  • Neff, K. (2003a). Self-compassion: An alternative conceptualization of a healthy attitude toward oneself. Self and Identity, 2(2), 85-101. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860309032
  • Neff, K. D. (2003b). The development and validation of a scale to measure self-compassion. Self and Identity, 2(3), 223-250. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860309027
  • Neff, K. D. (2004). Self-compassion and psychological well-being. Constructivism in the Human Sciences, 9(2), 27-38.
  • Neff, K., Kirkpatrick, K., & Rude, S. (2007). Self-compassion and adaptive psychological functioning. Journal of Research in Personality, 41, 139–154. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2006.03.004
  • Neff, K. D. (2008). Self-compassion: Moving beyond the pitfalls of a separate self-concept. In H. A. Wayment & J. J. Bauer (Eds.), Transcending self-interest: Psychological explorations of the quiet ego (pp. 95–105). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/11771-009
  • Neff, K. D. (2022). Self-compassion: Theory, method, research, and intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 74, 193-218. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-032420-031047
  • Neff, K. D., Kirkpatrick, K. L., & Rude, S. S. (2007). Self-compassion and adaptive psychological functioning. Journal of Research in Personality, 41(1), 139– 154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jrp.2006.03.004
  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). Rethinking rumination. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3(5), 400-424. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00088.x
  • Ogden, T. H. (1990). On potential space. In P. L. Giovacchini (Ed.), Tactics and techniques in psychoanalytic therapy, Vol. 3. The implications of Winnicott’s contributions (pp. 90–112). Jason Aronson.
  • Özyeşil, Z. (2011). Ünı̇versı̇te öğrencı̇lerı̇nı̇n öz-anlayış düzeylerı̇nı̇n bı̇lı̇nçlı̇ farkındalık kı̇şı̇lı̇k özellı̇klerı̇ ve bazı değı̇şkenler açısından ı̇ncelenmesı̇ [Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Selçuk Üniversitesi]. Yükseköğretim Kurulu Ulusal Tez Merkezi.
  • Papacostaki, M., (2012). Gestalt group therapy: A practical guide. Penn State University Press, 16(1), 115-117. https://doi.org/10.5325/gestaltreview.16.1.0115
  • Perls, F., Hefferline, G., & Goodman, P. (1951). Gestalt therapy. New York, 64(7), 19-313.
  • Perls, F. S. (1969). Ego, Hunger and Aggression: The Begining of Gestalt Therapy.
  • Prendergast, A., O’Leary, E., & O’Sullivan, K. (2001). Outcomes of a person-centred Gestalt group. The Irish Psychologist, 28(4), 41.
  • Rogers, C. R. (1961). On becoming a person. Houghton Mifflin.
  • Safran, J. D. (1998). Widening the scope of cognitive therapy: The moment-by-moment process. The Guilford Press.
  • Sokolov, M. A. (2020). Psycholinguistic benefits of asynchronous approach to distant learning amid heightened social anxiety and isolation. A Gestalt-dialectical perspective. In V. V. Levchenko (Eds.), L. A. Kozhevnikova & E. V. Postnikova. Foreign languages in the 21st century: current issues of linguistics and linguodidactics (pp. 117-128). Samara Publishing.
  • Suppes, B. (2021). Using self-compassion to influence romantic relationship satisfaction: A case study of women. Journal of Feminist Family Therapy, 33(3), 244-269. https://doi.org/10.1080/08952833.2021.1880185
  • Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2013). Using multivariate statistics: Pearson new international edition. Pearson Higher Education.
  • Williams, L. (2006). Spirituality and Gestalt: A Gestalt-transpersonal perspective. Gestalt Review, 10(1), 6-21. https://doi.org/10.5325/gestaltreview.10.1.0006
  • Understanding Self-Esteem and the Benefits of Gestalt Psychotherapy. (2020, November 20). Willingness. https://willingness.com.mt/understanding-self-security-and-the-benefits-of-gestalt-psychotherapy/
  • Winnicott, D. (1971). The location of cultural experience. In D. Winnicott (Ed.), Playing and Reality (pp. 112-129). Basic Books.
  • Yalom, I. D., & Terrazas, F. (1968). Group therapy for psychotic elderly patients. The American Journal of Nursing, 68(8), 1690-1694. https://doi.org/10.2307/3420975
  • Yontef, G. (2002). Proceso y Diálogo. Santiago de Chile. Cuatro Vientos Editorial.
  • Yontef, G. (2007). The power of the immediate moment in Gestalt therapy. Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy, 37(1), 17-23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10879-006-9030-0
  • Yontef, G., & Fairfield, M. (2008). Gestalt therapy. In K. Jordan (Ed.), The quick theory reference guide: A resource for expert and novice mental health professionals. Nova Science Publishers.
Toplam 54 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil İngilizce
Konular Psikoterapi Uygulama ve Araştırmaları
Bölüm Makaleler
Yazarlar

Sümeyye Eliz Burhan Bu kişi benim

Yayımlanma Tarihi 15 Haziran 2023
Gönderilme Tarihi 4 Şubat 2023
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2023 Cilt: 8 Sayı: 2

Kaynak Göster

APA Burhan, S. E. (2023). How Can Gestalt-Integrated Group Help Strengthen Your Self-Compassion?. Spiritual Psychology and Counseling, 8(2), 147-160.