Essential Learner Characteristics in Distance Education According to Experts

Abstract

The importance and impact of distance education are increasing thereby making it imperative to study its effectiveness and efficiency as regards student success. In this study, we focused on the importance of factors related to student success and priorities in distance education according to experts. We conducted a literature review for developing a spectrum of variables, as well as a survey method for collecting expert views to determine their order of importance. We scanned WoS-indexed journals in the Web of Science database using these variables, adding the keywords “online learning” and “distance education” between 2010 and 2022 to calculate the frequencies of the variables in research papers to confirm our proposed variables. We took the views of 15 academics working in the field of distance education to determine their priorities. According to the results, self-regulation was the most important learner characteristic for success in distance education. This variable was followed by learning self-efficacy, motivation, technology self-efficacy, cognitive learning strategies, goal setting, metacognitive skills, attitude towards e-learning, locus of control, and academic self-concept. These variables should be considered in instructional design processes, and be monitored and developed in distance learners for success.

Keywords

• Distance Education
• Learner Characteristics
• Expert Opinion

References

1. Abuhassna, H., Megat, A., Yahaya, N., Azlina, M., & Al-Rahmi, W. M. (2020). Examining Students' satisfaction and learning autonomy through web-based courses. International Journal of Advanced Trends in Computer Science and Engineering, 9(1), 356-370. https://doi.org/10.30534/ijatcse/2020/53912020
2. Ajmal, M., & Rafique, M. (2018). Relationship between academic self-concept and academic achievement of distance learners. Pakistan Journal of Distance and Online Learning, 5(3), 225-244. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1266814.pdf
3. Alhabeeb, A., & Rowley, J. (2018). E-learning critical success factors: Comparing perspectives from academic staff and students. Computers & Education, 127, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.08.007
4. Ali, S. (2021). E-Learners’ self-efficacy for online courses: Self-efficacy for IT use as a predictor for academic self-efficacy. Pakistan Journal of Distance & Online Learning, 7(2), 87-104. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1335391.pdf
5. Anthonysamy, L. (2021). The use of metacognitive strategies for undisrupted online learning: Preparing university students in the age of pandemic. Education and Information Technologies, 26(6), 6881-6899. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-021-10518-y
6. Bahçekapılı, E., & Karaman, S. (2015). Uzaktan eğitimde kişilik özellikleri ve akademik başarı: Bir literatür incelemesi [Personality traits and academic success in distance education: A literature review]. Journal of Instructional Technologies and Teacher Education, 4(3). Retrieved from https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/231336
7. Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191
8. Barnard-Brak, L., Paton, V. O., & Lan, W. Y. (2010). Profiles in self-regulated learning in the online learning environment. International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 11(1), 61-80. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v11i1.769

9. Boyadzhieva, E. (2016). Learner-centered teaching and learner autonomy. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 232, 35-40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.10.008
10. Büyüköztürk, Ş., Kılıç-Çakmak, E., Akgün, Ö., Karadeniz, Ş., & Demirel, F. (2024). Bilimsel araştırma yöntemleri [Scientific research methods] (35th Ed.). Pegem.
11. Cazan, A. M. (2012). Enhancing self regulated learning by learning journals. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 33, 413-417. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.01.154
12. Cho, M.-H., & Shen, D. (2013). Self-regulation in online learning. Distance Education, 34(3), 290–301. https://doi.org/10.1080/01587919.2013.835770
13. Cole, M. T., Shelley, D. J., & Swartz, L. B. (2014). Online instruction, e-learning, and student satisfaction: A three year study. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 15(6). https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v15i6.1748
14. Çakıroğlu, Ü. (2014). Analyzing the effect of learning styles and study habits of distance learners on learning performances: A case of an introductory programming course. International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 15(4), 161-185. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v15i4.1840
15. Dabbagh, N. (2007). The online learner: Characteristics and pedagogical implications. Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 7(3), 217–226. Retrieved from https://www.learntechlib.org/primary/p/22904/.
16. Deka, T. S., & McMurry, P. (2006). Student success in face-to-face and distance teleclass environments: A matter of contact?. International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 7(1), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v7i1.251
17. Dell, C. A., Low, C., & Wilker, J. F. (2010). Comparing student achievement in online and face-to-face class formats. Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 6(1), 30-42.
18. Donnelly, R., & Patrinos, H. A. (2021). Learning loss during COVID-19: An early systematic review. Prospects, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11125-021-09582-6
19. Duzgun, S., & Basaran, M. (2021). The effect of self-regulated learning on success during distance Education. International Online Journal of Educational Sciences, 13(5), 1577-1589. https://doi.org/10.15345/iojes.2021.05.017
20. El Refae, G. G. A., Kaba, A., & Eletter, S. (2021). The impact of demographic characteristics on academic performance: face-to-face learning versus distance learning implemented to prevent the spread of COVID-19. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 22(1), 91-110. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v22i1.5031
21. Enfiyeci, T., & Filiz, S. B. (2019). Uzaktan eğitim yüksek lisans öğrencilerinin topluluk hissinin çeşitli değişkenler açısından incelenmesi [Examining the sense of community of distance education graduate students in terms of various variables]. Tübav Bilim Dergisi, 12(1), 20-32. Retrieved from https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/692874
22. Eren, A. (2024). Determining the factors affecting the success of the distance education system. The Journal of Buca Faculty of Education, (59), 249-275. https://doi.org/10.53444/deubefd.1358870
23. Fouad, E., Austin, R., Kryger, R. A., Holton, D., Srinivasan, S., & Ngwa, W. (2021). Online versus face-to-face learning in introductory university physics following COVID-19. Physics Education, 57(2). https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6552/ac3dc5
24. Fotiadou, A. & Angelaki, C., & Mavroidis, I. (2017). Learner autonomy as a factor of the learning process in distance education. European Journal of Open, Distance and E-Learning, 20(1), 95-110. https://doi: 10.1515/eurodl-2017-0006
25. Glazier, R. A., Hamann, K., Pollock, P. H., & Wilson, B. M. (2020). Age, gender, and student success: mixing face-to-face and online courses in political science. Journal of Political Science Education, 16(2), 142-157. https://doi.org/10.1080/15512169.2018.1515636
26. Gökçearslan, Ş., & Alper, A. (2015). The effect of locus of control on learners' sense of community and academic success in the context of online learning communities. The Internet and Higher Education, 27, 64-73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2015.06.003
27. Gül, İ. & Arabacı, İ. B. (2018). Uzaktan eğitimle öğrenim gören eğitim yönetimi yüksek lisans öğrencilerinin programa ilişkin görüşleri [Opinions of distance education graduate students on the program in educational administration]. Sosyal Bilimler Araştırmaları Dergisi, 8(1), 79-88. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/449899
28. Gümüş, M. & Fırat, M. (2016). Açık ve uzaktan öğrenmenin tercih edilme nedenlerinin belirlenmesi [Determining the reasons for preferring open and distance learning]. Açıköğretim Uygulamaları ve Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2(4), 158-168. Retrieved from https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/auad/issue/34066/377109
29. Gürsul, F., & Keser, H. (2009). The effects of online and face to face problem based learning environments in mathematics education on student's academic achievement. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 1(1), 2817-2824. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2009.01.501
30. Helms, J. L. (2014). Comparing student performance in online and face-to-face delivery modalities. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 18(1), 1-14. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1030563.pdf
31. Horspool, A., & Lange, C. (2012). Applying the scholarship of teaching and learning: Student perceptions, behaviours and success online and face-to-face. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 37(1), 73-88. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2010.496532
32. Iglesias-Pradas, S., Hernández-García, Á., Chaparro-Peláez, J., & Prieto, J. L. (2021). Emergency remote teaching and students’ academic performance in higher education during the COVID-19 pandemic: A case study. Computers in Human Behavior, 119, 106713. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.106713
33. James, P. C. (2021). What determines student satisfaction in an e-learning environment? A comprehensive literature review of key success factors. Higher Education Studies, 11(3), 1-9. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1311714.pdf
34. Jansen, R. S., van Leeuwen, A., Janssen, J., Conijn, R., & Kester, L. (2020). Supporting learners’ self-regulated learning in massive open online courses. Computers & Education, 146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103771
35. Kaban, A. (2021). University students’ attitudes towards distance education. International Journal of Technology in Education and Science (IJTES), 5(3), 311-322. https://doi.org/10.46328/ijtes.241
36. Karadağ, E., & Yücel, C. (2020). Yeni tip Koronavirüs pandemisi döneminde üniversitelerde uzaktan eğitim: Lisans öğrencileri kapsamında bir değerlendirme çalışması [Distance education in universities during the novel coronavirus pandemic: An evaluation study among undergraduate students]. Yükseköğretim Dergisi, 10(2), 181-192. https://doi.org/10.2399/yod.20.730688
37. Kauffman, H. (2015). A review of predictive factors of student success in and satisfaction with online learning. Research in Learning Technology, 23, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.3402/rlt.v23.26507
38. Kizilcec, R. F., Pérez-Sanagustín, M., & Maldonado, J. J. (2017). Self-regulated learning strategies predict learner behavior and goal attainment in Massive Open Online Courses. Computers & Education, 104, 18-33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2016.10.001
39. Kuloğlu, M. E. (2020). Uzaktan eğitim öğrencilerinin akademik başarıları, başarı motivasyonları ve can sıkıntıları arasındaki ilişkinin incelenmesi [Examining the relationship between academic achievement, achievement motivation and boredom of distance education students]. Akademik Platform Eğitim ve Değişim Dergisi, 3(1), 48-60. Retrieved from https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/1096960
40. Kuo, Y. C., Lin, H. C.K., Lin,Y. H., Wang, T. H., & Chuang, B. Y. (2023). The influence of distance education and peer self-regulated learning mechanism on learning effectiveness, motivation, self-efficacy, reflective ability, and cognitive load. Sustainability, 15, 4501, 1-22. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15054501
41. Kuo, Y.-C., Walker, A. E., Belland, B. R., & Schroder, K. E. E. (2013). A predictive study of student satisfaction in online education programs. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 14(1), 16-39. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v14i1.1338
42. Larson, D. K., & Sung, C. H. (2009). Comparing student performance: Online versus blended versus face-to-face. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 13(1), 31–42. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ837556.pdf
43. Lavasani, M. G., Mirhosseini, F. S., Hejazi, E., & Davoodi, M. (2011). The effect of self-regulation learning strategies training on the academic motivation and self-efficacy. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 29, 627-632. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.11.285
44. Li, H. (2002, March 2-5). Distance Education: Pros, Cons, and the Future [Conference presentation]. Annual Meeting of the Western States Communication Association, Long Beach, CA, United States. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED461903.pdf
45. Lysitsa, E., & Mavroeidis, I. (2024). Critical factors affecting student satisfaction in a distance learning environment. European Journal of Open, Distance and E-Learning 26(1), 1-23. https://doi.org/10.2478/eurodl-2023-0014
46. Marjerison, R. K., Rahman, J. M., & Li, Z. (2020). Students’ attitudes towards distance education: A comparative study between sino-foreign cooperative universities and typical universities in China. Journal of Instructional Pedagogies, 25, 1-22. Retrieved from https://ssrn.com/abstract=3693978
47. Martin, F., Sun, T., & Westine, C. D. (2020). A systematic review of research on online teaching and learning from 2009 to 2018. Computers & Education, 159, 104009. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2020.104009
48. Min, W., & Yu, Z. (2023). A systematic review of critical success factors in blended learning. Education Sciences, 3(5), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci13050469
49. Moore, M. G. (2013). The theory of transactional distance. M. G. Moore (Ed.), Handbook of distance education (pp. 66-85). New York, NY: Routledge.
50. Naseer, N., & Majid, S. (2018). Prediction of achievements of distance learners from locus of control. Pakistan Journal of Distance and Online Learning, 4(2), 25-48. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1267034.pdf
51. Neroni, J., Meijs, C., Gijselaers, H. J. M., Kirschner, P. A., & de Groot, R. H. M. (2019). Learning strategies and academic performance in distance education. Learning and Individual Differences, 73, 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2019.04.007
52. Neroni, J., Meijs, C., Leontjevas, R., Kirschner, P. A., & De Groot, R. H. (2018). Goal orientation and academic performance in adult distance education. International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 19(2), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v19i2.3440
53. Pan, X. (2023). Online learning environments, learners’ empowerment, and learning behavioral engagement: the mediating role of learning motivation. SAGE Open, 13(4), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440231205098
54. Pollard, V., & Vincent, A. (2022). Micro-credentials: a postdigital counternarrative. Postdigital Science and Education, 4, 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42438-022-00311-6
55. Pintrich, P. R. (2000). The role of goal orientation in self-regulated learning. M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich & M. Zeidner (Ed.) Handbook of Self-Regulation (ss. 452–502). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012109890-2/50043-3
56. Pintrich, P. R. (2004). A conceptual framework for assessing motivation and self-regulated learning in college students. Educational Psychology Review, 16(4), 385-407. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-004-0006-x
57. Pintrich, P. R., Smith, D. A. F., Garcia, T., & McKeachie, W. J. (1991). A manual for the use of the motivated strategies for learning questionnaire (MSLQ). School of Education Building, The University of Michigan. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED338122.pdf
58. Pinzon, M.A.V., & Guarnizo, J. A. P. (2022). Predictor variables of academic achievement for psychology students in distance education. Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, 21(1), 53-80. https://doi.org/10.25115/ejrep.v21i59.6390
59. Rivers, D. J., Nakamura, M., & Vallance, M. (2022). Online self-regulated learning and achievement in the era of change. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 60(1), 104-131. https://doi.org/10.1177/07356331211025108
60. Rizana, A. F., Hediyanto, U Y K S., Ramadhan, F., & Kurniawati, A. (2020). E-learning success determinants in higher education: A systematic literature review from users’ perspective. Materials Science and Engineering, 830(3), 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/830/3/032012
61. Roick, J., Poethke, P. & Richter, M. (2023). Learners’ characteristics and the mastery of digital education during the COVID-19 pandemic in students of a medical faculty in Germany. BMC Medical Education, 23, 86. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-023-04012-x
62. Šašić, S. Š. (2023). The experiences of learning self regulation in distance education. Croatian Journal Educational/Hrvatski Casopis za Odgoj I Obrazovanje, 25(1), 179-211. https://doi.org/10.15516/cje.v25i1.4565
63. Schneller, C. & Holmberg, C. (2014). Distance education in European higher education: the students. UNESCO Inst. for lifelong learning.
64. Schunk, D. H., Pintrich, P. R., & Meece, J. L. (2014). Motivation in education: Theory, research, and applications. Pearson Education
65. Sharp, L. A., & Sharp, J. H. (2016). Enhancing student success in online learning experiences through the use of self-regulation strategies. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching, 27(2), 57-75. Retrieved from https://celt.miamioh.edu/ojs/index.php/JECT/article/view/389
66. Simpson, O. (2012). Supporting students for success in online and distance education. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203095737
67. Şirin, R., & Tekdal, M. (2015). Students’ views on English language courses through distance education. Gaziantep University Journal of Social Sciences, 14(1), 323-335. https://doi.org/10.21547/jss.256783
68. Tuckel, P., & Pok-Carabalona, K. (2023). Student attitudes towards distance learning at a large urban public college. Online Learning, 27(2), 94-118. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1392767.pdf
69. Turan, Z., Kucuk, S., & Cilligol Karabey, S. (2022). The university students’ self-regulated effort, flexibility and satisfaction in distance education. International Journal of Educational Technolology in Higher Education 19, 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-022-00342-w
70. Tülübaş, T. (2022). The effect of self-regulated online learning skills on academic achievement. Anadolu Journal of Educational Sciences International, 12(2), 389-416. https://doi.org/10.18039/ajesi.1021613
71. Uçar, H., & Kumtepe, A. T. (2016). Uzaktan eğitimde ARCS-V motivasyon tasarımı modelinin kullanımı. Açıköğretim Uygulamaları ve Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2(4), 37-54. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/402106
72. Wang, C. H., Shannon, D. M., & Ross, M. E. (2013). Students’ characteristics, self-regulated learning, technology self-efficacy, and course outcomes in online learning. Distance Education, 34(3), 302-323. https://doi.org/10.1080/01587919.2013.835779
73. Whittington, L. A. (1995). Factors impacting on the success of distance education students of the university of the West Indies: A review of the literature. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED453740.pdf
74. Won, S., Kapil, M. E., Drake, B. J., & Paular, R. A. (2023). Investigating the role of academic, social, and emotional self-efficacy in online learning. The Journal of Experimental Education, 92(3), 485-501. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220973.2023.2183375
75. Wu, R. (2023). The relationship between online learning self-efficacy, informal digital learning of English, and student engagement in online classes: the mediating role of social presence. Frontiers in Psychology 14, 1266009. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1266009
76. Xu, L., Duan, P., Padua, S. A., & Li, C. (2022). The impact of self-regulated learning strategies on academic performance for online learning during COVID-19. Frontiers in Psychology 13, 1047680. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1047680
77. Yen, S. C., Lo, Y., Lee, A., & Enriquez, J. (2018). Learning online, offline, and in-between: comparing student academic outcomes and course satisfaction in face-to-face, online, and blended teaching modalities. Education and Information Technologies, 23(5), 2141-2153. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-018-9707-5
78. Yükseltürk, E., & Baturay, M. H. (2012). Identified success factors of graduates in an online program. Hacettepe University Journal of Education 43, 508-519. Retrieved from https://www.learntechlib.org/p/69533/
79. Yükseltürk, E., & Bulut, S. (2007). Predictors for student success in an online course. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 10(2), 71-83. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/jeductechsoci.10.2.71.pdf
80. Zhang, S., Ma, R., Wang, Z., Li, G., & Fa, T. (2022). Academic self-concept mediates the effect of online learning engagement on deep learning in online courses for Chinese nursing students: A cross-sectional study. Nurse Education Today, 117, 105481. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2022.105481
81. Zhou, Y., & Wang, J. (2019). Goal orientation, learning strategies, and academic performance in adult distance learning. Social Behavior and Personality, 47 (7), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.8195
82. Zimmerman, B. J. (1986). Becoming a self-regulated learner: Which are the key subprocesses?. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 11(4), 307-313. https://doi.org/10.1016/0361-476X(86)90027-5
83. Zimmerman, B. J. (1990). Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: An overview. Educational Psychologist, 25(1), 3-17. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep2501_2
84. Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). Attaining self-regulation: A social cognitive perspective. M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich & M. Zeidner (Ed), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 13-39). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012109890-2/50031-7
85. Zimmerman, B. J. (2008). Investigating self-regulation and motivation: Historical background, methodological developments, and future prospects. American Educational Research Journal, 45(1), 166-183. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831207312909
86. Zimmerman, B. J. (2011). Motivational sources and outcomes of self-regulated learning and performance. B. J. Zimmerman & D. H. Schunk (Ed.), Handbook of self-regulation of learning and performance (pp. 49–64). Routledge.
87. Zikai, Z., & Yuanyuan, Z. (2023). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in distance education: a self-determination perspective. American Journal of Distance Education, 1-14. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/08923647.2023.2177032