Serial Mediators Between Loneliness and Resilience: Mental Well-Being and Difficulty in Emotion Regulation

Abstract

Loneliness is defined as a situation where there is a mismatch between the relationships an individual desires and feels uncomfortable with, and the relationships they believe they have. Studies have shown that loneliness causes both physiological and mental health problems. Additionally, the relationships between loneliness and psychological concepts have been examined in the literature. One of these psychological concepts, resilience, draws attention as a protective factor for human mental health. Considering the relationship between resilience and loneliness, identifying the mediating factors is crucial for maintaining mental health. This study aimed to reveal the effects of mental well-being and emotion regulation, which are strong predictors of loneliness and are predicted to play a mediating role in this dual relationship, and thus, to identify areas that require psychological intervention. In the present study, the UCLA Loneliness Scale, Brief Resilience Scale, Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-Being Scale Short Form, and Difficulty in Emotion Regulation Scale were utilised to obtain data from a total of 640 adult participants over the age of 18. The findings indicated that mental well-being and emotion regulation challenges partially mediated the relationship between loneliness and resilience. Consequently, the current study examined the serial mediating role of mental well-being and difficulty in emotion regulation in the relationship between loneliness and resilience, and the hypothesis was confirmed by the findings. The present study constitutes a cross-sectional investigation. Cross-sectional studies, however, are insufficient for establishing causality. In order to achieve this objective, the emphasis should be placed on causality in longitudinal studies. Furthermore, the development of psycho-education programs has the potential to enhance resilience.

Keywords

• Loneliness
• Resilience
• Mental Well-Being
• Difficulty in Emotion Regulation

References

1. Afita, L., & Nuranasmita, T. (2023). The role of social support in promoting resilience and mental well-being. Bulletin of Science Education, 3(3), 269-279. http://dx.doi.org/10.51278/bse.v3i3.867
2. Akaike, H. (1987). Factor analysis and AIC. Psychometrika, 52(3), 317-332. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02294359.
3. Akıncı, İ. (2015). The relationship between the types of narcissism and psychological well-being: The roles of emotions and difficulties in emotion regulation (Yayın No. 399997) [Master's thesis, Middle East Technical University]. YÖK Ulusal Tez Merkezi.
4. Aldao, A., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Schweizer, S. (2010). Emotion-regulation strategies across psychopathology: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(2), 217-237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2009.11.004
5. Arici-Ozcan, N., Cekici, F., & Arslan, R. (2019). The relationship between resilience and distress tolerance in college students: The mediator role of cognitive flexibility and difficulties in emotion regulation. International Journal of Educational Methodology, 5(4), 525-533. htpps://doi.org/ 10.12973/ijem.5.4.525.
6. Asher, S. R., & Paquette, J. A. (2003). Loneliness and peer relations in childhood. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12(3), 75−78. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.01233
7. Aydın-Sünbül, Z. (2016). The relationship between mindfulness and resilience among adolescents: mediating role of self-compassion and difficulties in emotion regulation (Yayın No. 481527) [Doctoral thesis, Middle East Technical University]. YÖK Ulusal Tez Merkezi.
8. Aziz, S., Chaudhary, A., & Ali, N. (2021). To study the relationship satisfaction and degree of loneliness in romantic relationships. Indian Journal of Physiotherapy & Occupational Therapy Print-(ISSN 0973-5666) and Electronic–(ISSN 0973-5674), 15(4), 109-119. https://doi.org/10.37506/ijpot.v15i4.16511

9. Bangee, M., Harris, R. A., Bridges, N., Rotenberg, K. J., & Qualter, P. (2014). Loneliness and attention to social threat in young adults: Findings from an eye tracker study. Personality and Individual Differences, 63, 16-23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.01.039
10. Behrouian, M., Ramezani, T., Dehghan, M., Sabahi, A., & Ebrahimnejad Zarandi, B. (2020). The effect of emotion regulation training on stress, anxiety, and depression in family caregivers of patients with schizophrenia: a randomized controlled trial. Community Mental Health Journal, 56(6), 1095-1102. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10597-020-00574-y
11. Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1993) Alternative ways of assessing model fit. Sage Focus Editions, 154, 136-136. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124192021002005.
12. Buecker, S., & Horstmann, K. T. (2022). Loneliness and social isolation during the COVID-19 pandemic. European Psychologist. https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040/a000453
13. Chen, Y., & Feeley, T. H. (2014). Social support, social strain, loneliness, and well-being among older adults:An analysis of the Health and Retirement Study*. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 31(2), 141-161. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407513488728
14. Demirtaş, A. S., & Baytemir, K. (2019). Adaptation of the Warwick–Edinburgh Mental Well-Being Scale short form into Turkish: A validity and reliability study. Electronic Journal of Social Sciences, 18(70), 689–701. https://doi.org/10.17755/esosder.432708
15. Doğan, T. (2015). Adaptation of the Brief Resilience Scale into Turkish: A validity and reliability study. The Journal of Happiness & Well‐Being, 3(1), 93.
16. Domènech-Abella, J., Lara, E., Rubio-Valera, M., Olaya, B., Moneta, M. V., Rico-Uribe, L. A., ... & Haro, J. M. (2017). Loneliness and depression in the elderly: the role of social network. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 52(4), 381-390. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-017-1339-3
17. Ekşi, H., Erik, C. (2023, 20-21 July). Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale-8: Adaptation to Turkish [Paper Presentation]. 2st International Congress of Educational Sciences and Linguists, Warsaw, Poland.
18. Eres, R., Lim, M. H., Lanham, S., Jillard, C., & Bates, G. (2021). Loneliness and emotion regulation: Implications of having social anxiety disorder. Australian Journal of Psychology, 73(1), 46-56. https://doi.org/10.1080/00049530.2021.1904498.
19. Erzen, E., & Çikrikci, Ö. (2018). The effect of loneliness on depression: A meta-analysis. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 64(5), 427-435. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764018776349.
20. Fallavollita, W. L., & Lyons, M. D. (2023). Social acceptance from peers and youth mentoring: Implications for addressing loneliness and social isolation. Journal of Community Psychology, 51(5), 2065-2082. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.23002
21. Finney, S. J., & DiStefano, C. (2006). Non-normal and categorical data in structural equation modeling. In G. R. Hancock & R. O. Mueller (Eds.), Structural Equation Modeling: A Second Course (pp. 269-314). Information Age Publishing.
22. Gao, T., Ding, X., Chai, J., Zhang, Z., Zhang, H., Kong, Y., & Mei, S. (2017). The influence of resilience on mental health: The role of general well‐being. International Journal of Nursing Practice, 23(3), e12535. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijn.12535
23. Gerino, E., Rollè, L., Sechi, C., & Brustia, P. (2017). Loneliness, resilience, mental health, and quality of life in old age: A structural equation model. Frontiers in Psychology, 8(2003). 1-12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02003
24. Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion regulation: Current status and future prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1-26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781
25. Hashemi, S. G. S., Shalchi, B., & Yaghoubi, H. (2018). Difficulties in emotion regulation, psychological well-being, and hypersexuality in patients with substance use disorder in Iran. Iranian Journal of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.5812/ijpbs.10449
26. Hawkley, L. C., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2010). Loneliness matters: A theoretical and empirical review of consequences and mechanisms. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 40(2), 218-227. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12160-010-9210-8
27. Heinrich, L. M., & Gullone, E. (2006). The clinical significance of loneliness: A literature review. Clinical Psychology Review, 26(6), 695-718. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2006.04.002
28. Holt-Lunstad, J., Smith, T. B., Baker, M., Harris, T., & Stephenson, D. (2015). Loneliness and social isolation as risk factors for mortality: a meta-analytic review. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(2), 227-237. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691614568352
29. Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080 /10705519909540118.
30. Hu, T., Zhang, D., & Wang, J. (2015). A meta-analysis of the trait resilience and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 76, 18-27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.11.039
31. İme, Y. (2024). May bullying victimization and loneliness in adolescents be risk factors for psychological resilience?. Turkish Psychological Counseling and Guidance Journal, 14(75), 515-523. https://doi.org/10.17066/tpdrd.1394927yi
32. İme, Y., & Çakır, E. N. (2024). The link between bullying victimization, loneliness, resilience, and mental well-being in adolescents. Československá Psychologie, 68(6), 490-500. https://doi.org/10.51561/cspsych.68.6.490
33. Joyce, S., Shand, F., Tighe, J., Laurent, S. J., Bryant, R. A., & Harvey, S. B. (2018). Road to resilience: a systematic review and meta-analysis of resilience training programmes and interventions. BMJ Open, 8(6), e017858. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2017-017858
34. Keyes, C. L. (2002). The mental health continuum: From languishing to flourishing in life. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 207-222. https://doi.org/10.2307/3090197
35. Kline, R. B. (2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. Guilford Press.
36. Kobos, E., Knoff, B., Dziedzic, B., Maciąg, R., & Idzik, A. (2022). Loneliness and mental well-being in the Polish population during the COVID-19 pandemic: a cross-sectional study. BMJ Open, 12(2), e056368. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2021-056368
37. Kovacs, B., Caplan, N., Grob, S., & King, M. (2021). Social networks and loneliness during the COVID-19 pandemic. Socius, 7, 2378023120985254. https://doi.org/10.1177/237802312098525
38. Li, F., Luo, S., Mu, W., Li, Y., Ye, L., Zheng, X., ... & Chen, X. (2021). Effects of sources of social support and resilience on the mental health of different age groups during the COVID-19 pandemic. BMC Psychiatry, 21(1), 16. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-03012-1
39. Lindsay, E. K., Young, S., Brown, K. W., Smyth, J. M., & Creswell, J. D. (2019). Mindfulness training reduces loneliness and increases social contact in a randomized controlled trial. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(9), 3488-3493. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1813588116
40. Loades, M. E., Chatburn, E., Higson-Sweeney, N., Reynolds, S., Shafran, R., Brigden, A., ... & Crawley, E. (2020). Rapid systematic review: the impact of social isolation and loneliness on the mental health of children and adolescents in the context of COVID-19. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 59(11), 1218-1239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2020.05.009
41. Luthar, S. S., & Cicchetti, D. (2000). The construct of resilience: Implications for interventions and social policies. Development and Psychopathology, 12(4), 857-885. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579400004156
42. Lyyra, N., Thorsteinsson, E. B., Eriksson, C., Madsen, K. R., Tolvanen, A., Löfstedt, P., & Välimaa, R. (2021). The association between loneliness, mental well-being, and self-esteem among adolescents in four Nordic countries. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(14), 7405. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18147405
43. Masi, C. M., Chen, H. Y., Hawkley, L. C., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2011). A meta-analysis of interventions to reduce loneliness. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 15(3), 219-266. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868310377394
44. Morrish, N., Choudhury, S., & Medina-Lara, A. (2023). What works in interventions targeting loneliness: a systematic review of intervention characteristics. BMC Public Health, 23(1), 2214. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-023-17097-2
45. Mouatsou, C., & Koutra, K. (2021). Emotion regulation in relation with resilience in emerging adults: The mediating role of self-esteem. Current Psychology, 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-01427-x
46. Nasser-Abu Alhija, F., & Wisenbaker, J. (2006). A Monte Carlo study investigating the impact of item parceling strategies on parameter estimates and their standard errors in CFA. Structural Equation Modeling, 13(2), 204-228. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15328007sem1302_3
47. Neto, F. (2014). Psychometric analysis of the short-form UCLA Loneliness Scale (ULS-6) in older adults. European Journal of Ageing, 11, 313-319. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10433-014-0312-1.
48. Parlikar, N., Strand, L. B., Kvaløy, K., Espnes, G. A., & Moksnes, U. K. (2025). The prospective association of adolescent loneliness and low resilience with anxiety and depression in young adulthood: The HUNT study. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 60, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-025-02888-2
49. Penner, F., Steinberg, L., & Sharp, C. (2023). The development and validation of the difficulties in emotion regulation Scale-8: providing respondents with a uniform context that elicits thinking about situations requiring emotion regulation. Journal of Personality Assessment, 105(5), 657-666. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2133722
50. Polizzi, C. P., & Lynn, S. J. (2021). Regulating emotionality to manage adversity: A systematic review of the relation between emotion regulation and psychological resilience. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-020-10186-1
51. Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40(3), 879-891. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.40.3.879
52. Richardson, T., Elliott, P., & Roberts, R. (2017). Relationship between loneliness and mental health in students. Journal of Public Mental Health, 16(2), 48–54. https://doi.org/10.1108/jpmh-03-2016-0013.
53. Rotenberg, K. J. (1999). Childhood and adolescent loneliness: An introduction. In K. J. Rotenberg & S. Hymel (Eds.), Loneliness in Childhood and Adolescence (pp. 3−8). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
54. Sarıçam, H. (2023). Loneliness in adults after COVID-19: Psychometric properties of the UCLA Loneliness Scale short form (ULS-6). Igdir University Journal of Social Sciences, (32), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.54600/igdirsosbilder.1066242
55. Smith, B. W., Dalen, J., Wiggins, K., Tooley, E., Christopher, P., & Bernard, J. (2008). The brief resilience scale: assessing the ability to bounce back. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 15, 194-200. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705500802222972.
56. Steptoe, A., Deaton, A., & Stone, A. A. (2015). Subjective wellbeing, health, and ageing. The lancet, 385(9968), 640-648. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61489-0
57. Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2001). Using multivariate statistics (4^th. ed.). Pearson Education.
58. Taylor, H. O. (2020). Social isolation’s influence on loneliness among older adults. Clinical social work journal, 48(1), 140-151. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10615-019-00737-9
59. Tennant, R., Hiller, L., Fishwick, R., Platt, S., Joseph, S., Weich, S., ... & Stewart-Brown, S. (2007). The Warwick-Edinburgh mental well-being scale (WEMWBS): development and UK validation. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 5(1), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1186/1477-7525-5-63.
60. Thompson, A., Smith, M. A., McNeill, A., & Pollet, T. V. (2024). Friendships, loneliness and psychological wellbeing in older adults: a limit to the benefit of the number of friends. Ageing & Society, 44(5), 1090-1115. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X22000666
61. Tong, F., Yu, C., Wang, L., Chi, I., & Fu, F. (2021). Systematic review of efficacy of interventions for social isolation of older adults. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 554145. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.554145
62. VanderWeele, T. J., Trudel-Fitzgerald, C., Allin, P., Farrelly, C., Fletcher, G., Frederick, D. E., ... & Kubzansky, L. D. (2020). Current recommendations on the selection of measures for well-being. Preventive Medicine, 133, 106004. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2020.106004
63. Vanhalst, J., Luyckx, K., Raes, F., & Goossens, L. (2012). Loneliness and depressive symptoms: The mediating and moderating role of uncontrollable ruminative thoughts. The Journal of Psychology, 146(1-2), 259-276. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2011.555433