Investigation of the Relationships Between Contingent Self-Worth and Aggression Tendencies of University Students

Year 2025, Volume: 15 Issue: 79, 854 - 871, 29.12.2025

Doğan Güneş Temli , Esat Şanlı

Abstract

This study examined the relationship between self-worth contingencies and aggression among 958 university students across four faculties in a university of Turkey, using the Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire and Contingencies of Self-Worth Scale. Employing a Structural Equation Model and lavaan package in R, significant links were found between self-worth aspects and different forms of aggression. The results indicated that the following effects were statistically significant: The effects of virtue and physical appearance on physical aggression; competition and God’s love on verbal aggression; competition, approval from others, physical appearance, and school competence on hostility; and competition and family support on anger. It was found that the higher the physical appearance factor, the higher the level of physical aggression and hostility. As the level of virtue increases, the level of physical aggression decreases. Verbal aggression and anger levels increase as the competition factor increases; however, the level of hostility decreases. The higher God’s love, the lower the level of verbal aggression. The higher the factor of others’ approval, the higher the level of hostility. The higher the academic competence needs for self-worth, the higher the level of hostility. As the family support factor increases, the anger level decreases. Based on these results, it was concluded that contingencies of self-worth are important factors in determining aggression tendencies.

Keywords

Aggression , Hostility , Anger , Contingencies of Self-Worth , Self-Worth

References

• Amad, S., Gray, N. S., & Snowden, R. J. (2021). Self-esteem, narcissism, and aggression: Different types of self-esteem predict different types of aggression. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(23-24), NP13296-NP13313. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260520905540
• Anderson, C. A., Anderson, K. B., & Deuser, W. E. (1996). Examining an affective aggression framework: Weapon and temperature effects on aggressive thoughts, affect, and attitudes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22(4), 366-376. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167296224004
• Archer, J. (2004). Sex differences in aggression in real-world settings: A meta-analytic review. Review of General Psychology, 8(4), 291-322. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.8.4.291
• Averill, J. R. (2012). Anger. In Ramachandran, V.S. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of human behavior: Second edition (pp. 137-144). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-375000-6.00023-9
• Bai, F. (2017). Beyond dominance and competence: A moral virtue theory of status attainment. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 21(3), 203-227. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868316649297
• Barnett, M. D., & Powell, H. A. (2016). Self-esteem mediates narcissism and aggression among women, but not men: A comparison of two theoretical models of narcissism among college students. Personality and Individual Differences, 89, 100-104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.09.042
• Barry, C. T., McDougall, K. H., Anderson, A. C., & Bindon, A. L. (2018). Global and contingent self-esteem as moderators in the relations between adolescent narcissism, callous-unemotional traits, and aggression. Personality and Individual Differences, 123, 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.10.036
• Baumeister, R. F., Tice, D. M., & Hutton, D. G. (1989). Self‐presentational motivations and personality differences in self‐esteem. Journal of Personality, 57(3), 547-579. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1989.tb02384.x
• Bekiari, A., & Hassanagas, N. (2015). Verbal aggressiveness exploration through complete social network analysis: Using physical education students’ class as an illustration. International Journal of Socal Science Studies, 3(3), 30-49. https://doi.org/10.11114/ijsss.v3i3.729
• Berkowitz, L., & Harmon-Jones, E. (2004). Toward an understanding of the determinants of anger. Emotion, 4(2), 107-130. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.4.2.107
• Bettencourt, B. A., Talley, A., Benjamin, A. J., & Valentine, J. (2006). Personality and aggressive behavior under provoking and neutral conditions: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 132(5), 751-777. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.132.5.751
• Björkqvist, K. (1994). Sex differences in physical, verbal, and indirect aggression: A review of recent research. Sex Roles, 30, 177-188. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01420988
• Blascovich, J., & Tomaka, J. (1991). Measures of self-esteem. In Robinson, J. P., Shaver, P. R. & Wrightsman, L. S. (Eds.), Measures of personality and social psychological attitudes (pp. 115-160). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-590241-0.50008-3
• Bos, A. E. R., Huijding, J., Muris, P., Vogel, L. R. R., & Biesheuvel, J. (2009). Global, contingent and implicit self-esteem and psychopathological symptoms in adolescents. Personality and Individual Differences, 48, 311-316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2009.10.025
• Brown, J. D., & Marshall, M. A. (2006). The three faces of self-esteem. In M. Kernis (Ed.), Self-esteem issues and answers: A sourcebook of current perspectives (pp. 4-9). Psychology Press. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203759745
• Brown, R. P., & Zeigler-Hill, V. (2004). Narcissism and the non-equivalence of self-esteem measures: A matter of dominance? Journal of Research in Personality, 38(6), 585-592. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2003.11.002
• Buss, A. H., & Durkee, A. (1957). An inventory for assessing different kinds of hostility. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 21(4), 343-349 https://doi.org/10.1037/h0046900
• Buss, A. H., & Perry, M. (1992). The aggression questionnaire. Journal of Personality, 63(3), 452-459. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.63.3.452
• Caprara, G. V., Tisak, M. S., Alessandri, G., Fontaine, R. G., Fida, R., & Paciello, M. (2014). The contribution of moral disengagement in mediating individual tendencies toward aggression and violence. Developmental Psychology, 50(1), 71-85. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034488
• Carré, J. M., & Olmstead, N. A. (2015). Social neuroendocrinology of human aggression: Examining the role of competition-induced testosterone dynamics. Neuroscience, 286, 171-186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.11.029
• Cast, A. D., & Burke, P. J. (2002). A theory of self-esteem. Social Forces, 80(3), 1041-1068. https://doi.org/10.1353/sof.2002.0003
• Çetin, B., Akın, A., & Eroğlu, Y. (2011). The validity and reliability of contingencies of self worth scale, Journal of Human Sciences, 8(1), 410-426. Retrieved from https://www.j-humansciences.com/ojs/index.php/IJHS/article/view/1425
• Conn, L. K., & Crowne, D. P. (1964). Instigation to aggression, emotional arousal and defensive emulation. Journal of Personality, 32, 163-179. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1964.tb01333.x
• Crick, N. R., & Dodge, K. A. (1996). Social information-processing mechanisms in reactive and proactive aggression. Child Development, 67(3), 993-1002. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01778.x
• Crocker, J. (2002). The costs of seeking self-esteem. Journal of Social Issues, 58(3), 597-615. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-4560.00279
• Crocker, J., Luhtanen, R. K., Lynne Cooper, M., & Bouvrette, A. (2003). Contingencies of self-worth in college students: Theory and measurement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(5), 894-908. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.5.894
• Crocker, J., Luhtanen, R. K., & Sommers, S. R. (2004). Contingencies of self-worth: Progress and prospects. European Review of Social Psychology, 15(1), 133-181. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463280440000017
• Crocker, J., & Wolfe, C. (2001). Contingencies of self-worth. Psychological Review, 108(3), 593-623. https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-295X.108.3.593
• Dam, V. H., Hjordt, L. V., da Cunha‐Bang, S., Sestoft, D., Knudsen, G. M., & Stenbæk, D. S. (2021). Trait aggression is associated with five‐factor personality traits in males. Brain and Behavior, 11(7): e02175. https://doi.org/10.1002/brb3.2175
• Davis, A. C., Dufort, C., Desrochers, J., Vaillancourt, T., & Arnocky, S. (2018). Gossip as an intrasexual competition strategy: Sex differences in gossip frequency, content, and attitudes. Evolutionary Psychological Science, 4(2), 141-153. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40806-017-0121-9
• Demirtaş Madran, H. A. (2013). Validity and reliability study of the Turkish version of the Buss-Perry Aggression Scale. Turkish Journal of Psychiatry, 24(2), 124-129. https://doi.org/10.5080/u6859
• Dodge, K. A., & Coie, J. D. (1987). Social-information-processing factors in reactive and proactive aggression in children’s peer groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53(6), 1146-1158. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.53.6.1146
• Donnellan, M. B., Trzesniewski, K. H., Robins, R. W., Moffitt, T. E., & Caspi, A. (2005). Low self-esteem is related to aggression, antisocial behavior, and delinquency. Psychological Science, 16(4), 328-335. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.01535.x
• Du, T. V., Miller, J. D., & Lynam, D. R. (2022). The relation between narcissism and aggression: A meta‐analysis. Journal of Personality, 90(4), 574-594. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12684
• Elmalı Karakaya, A., Karataş, M., Erultunca, T., & İnce, A. (2023). A look at the level of belief in Islam among university youth in Turkey: Literature review. Dergiabant, 11(2), 282-297. https://doi.org/10.33931/dergiabant.1360733
• Eroğlu, Y., & Güler, N. (2015). The investigation relationships among contingencies of self-worth, risky internet behaviors and cyberbullying/cybervictimization. Sakarya University Journal of Education, 5(3), 118-129. https://doi.org/10.19126/suje.04882
• Ferris, D. L., Lian, H., Brown, D. J., Pang, F. X. J., & Keeping, L. M. (2010). Self-esteem and job performance: The moderating role of self-esteem contingencies. Personnel Psychology, 63(3), 561-593. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2010.01181.x
• Firat, M., & Karakurt, P. (2021). Association between religious attitudes and aggression levels in Turkish university students. Journal of Religion and Health, 60(6), 4345-4360. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-021-01293-8
• Fletcher, R., & Milton, M. (2007). Being aggressive: An existential-phenomenological critique of the psychological literature on human aggression. Existential Analysis, 18(2), 297-314. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2007-12415-007
• Gao, S., Assink, M., Liu, T., Chan, K. L., & Ip, P. (2021). Associations between rejection sensitivity, aggression, and victimization: A meta-analytic review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 22(1), 125-135. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838019833005
• Garcia, G. M., Watson, P. J., Cunningham, C. J. L., O’Leary, B. J., & Chen, Z. (2015). Narcissism and anger: Self-esteem and contingencies of self-worth as mediating self-structures. Interpersona: An International Journal on Personal Relationships, 9(1), 59-71. https://doi.org/10.5964/ijpr.v9i1.163
• Gecas, V. (1982). The self-concept. Annual Review of Sociology, 8, 1-33. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.so.08.080182.000245
• Ghosh, A. (2012). Individualist-collectivist orientations and achievement value in college students. Journal of Transpersonal Research, 4(1), 39-46.
• Giordano, A. L., Prosek, E. A., Reader, E. A., Bevly, C. M., Turner, K. D., Leblanc, Y. N., Vera, R. A., Molina, C. E., & Garber, S. A. (2015). Collegiate misuse of prescription stimulants: Examining differences in self-worth. Substance Use and Misuse, 50(3), 358-365. https://doi.org/10.3109/10826084.2014.980956
• Güngör, D., Karasawa, M., Boiger, M., Dinçer, D., & Mesquita, B. (2014). Fitting in or sticking together: The prevalence and adaptivity of conformity, relatedness, and autonomy in Japan and Turkey. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 45(9), 1374-1389. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022114542977
• Harter, S., Waters, P., & Whitesell, N. R. (1998). Relational self-worth: Differences in perceived worth as a person across interpersonal contexts among adolescents. Child Development, 69(3), 756-766. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1998.tb06241.x
• Harter, S., & Whitesell, N. R. (2003). Beyond the debate: Why some adolescents report stable self‐worth over time and situation, whereas others report changes in self‐worth. Journal of Personality, 71(6), 1027-1058. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6494.7106006
• Herrmann, J., Koeppen, K., & Kessels, U. (2019). Do girls take school too seriously? Investigating gender differences in school burnout from a self-worth perspective. Learning and Individual Differences, 69, 150-161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2018.11.011
• İkiz, S., & Öztürk Samur, A. (2016). Examining physical and relational agression of preschool children in terms of parents’ attitudes. Mustafa Kemal University Journal of Graduate School of Social Sciences, 13(35), 159-175. Retrieved from https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/mkusbed/issue/24546/259990#article_cite
• Jordan, C. H., Zeigler-Hill, V., & Cameron, J. J. (2015). Self-esteem. In J. D. Wright (Ed.), International encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences: Second edition (pp. 522-528). https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.25090-3
• Kanat-Maymon, Y., Almog, L., Cohen, R., & Amichai-Hamburger, Y. (2018). Contingent self-worth and Facebook addiction. Computers in Human Behavior, 88, 227-235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.07.011
• Karaboğa, F., & Eker, E. (2018). An Analysis of the adolescents with high parents rejection perception in terms of certain socio-demographic factors. Aydın Journal of Human and Society, 4(1), 33-56. Retrieved from https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/aitdergi/issue/43681/535868
• Kernis, M. H. (2003). Toward a conceptualization of optimal self-esteem. Psychological Inquiry, 14(1), 1-26. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1401_01
• Khosravi, A., & Namani, E. (2021). Investigating the Structural model of the relationship between self-compassion and psychological hardiness with family cohesion in women with war-affected spouses: The mediating role of self-worth. Contemporary Family Therapy, 1, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10591-021-09579-5
• Kim, J., & Williams, S. (2009). Linking childhood maltreatment to substance use in college students: The mediating role of self-worth contingencies. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma, 18(1), 88-105. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926770802616399
• Kılıç Yıldız, M., & Dağ, İ. (2017). The examination of the relationship between perceived parental acceptance- rejection and anger expression styles and depressive symptoms. Turkish Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 20(2), 84-95. http://doi.org/10.5505/kpd.2017.98698
• Lane, J., Lane, A. M., & Kyprianou, A. (2004). Self-efficacy, self-esteem and their impact on academic performance. Social Behavior and Personality, 32(3), 247-256. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2004.32.3.247
• Lansu, T. A., & Cillessen, A. H. (2012). Peer status in emerging adulthood: Associations of popularity and preference with social roles and behavior. Journal of Adolescent Research, 27(1), 132-150. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558411402341
• Leach, M. M., Berman, M. E., & Eubanks, L. (2008). Religious activities, religious orientation, and aggressive behavior. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 47(2), 311-319. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-5906.2008.00409.x
• Li, Y., Wang, M., Wang, C., & Shi, J. (2010). Individualism, collectivism, and Chinese adolescents' aggression: Intracultural variations. Aggressive Behavior, 36(3), 187-194. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/ab.20341
• Liu, C. H., Chiu, Y. H. C., & Chang, J. H. (2017). Why do easterners have lower well-being than westerners? The role of others’ approval contingencies of self-worth in the cross-cultural differences in subjective well-being. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 48(2), 217-224. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022116677580
• Liu, C. H., & Huang, P. S. (2018). Contingencies of self-worth on positive and negative events and their relationships to depression. Frontiers in Psychology, 9:2372. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02372
• Lockhart, G., Phillips, S., Bolland, A., Delgado, M., Tietjen, J., & Bolland, J. (2017). Prospective relations among low-income African American adolescents’ maternal attachment security, self-worth, and risk behaviors. Frontiers in Psychology, 8:33. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00033
• Loeber, R., & Hay, D. (1997). Key issues in the development of aggression and violence from childhood to early adulthood. Annual Review of Psychology, 48(1), 371-410. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.48.1.371
• Maricuţoiu, L. P., MacSinga, I., Rusu, S., Vîrgǎ, D., & Sava, F. A. (2012). Adaptation and validation of the contingencies of self-worth scale on a Romanian student sample. Cognition, Brain, Behavior, 16(1), 121-138. Retrieved from https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Adaptation-and-Validation-of-the-Contingencies-of-a-Maricuţoiu-Macsinga/5fcc77d5d65410c5e608a63e2f0e91aabcfe0db6
• McCullough, M. E., & Willoughby, B. L. B. (2009). Religion, self-regulation, and self-control: Associations, explanations, and implications. Psychological Bulletin, 135(1), 69-93. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014213
• McCullough, M. E., & Worthington, Jr., E. L. (1999). Religion and the forgiving personality. Journal of Personality, 67(6), 1141-1164. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6494.00085
• Mitsopoulou, E., & Giovazolias, T. (2015). Personality traits, empathy and bullying behavior: A meta-analytic approach. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 21, 61-72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2015.01.007
• Morf, C. C., & Rhodewalt, F. (2001). Unraveling the paradoxes of narcissism: A dynamic self-regulatory processing model. Psychological Inquiry, 12(4), 177-196. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1204_1
• Muris, P., Merckelbach, H., Otgaar, H., & Meijer, E. (2017). The malevolent side of human nature: A meta-analysis and critical review of the literature on the dark triad (narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy). Perspectives on Psychological Science, 12(2), 183-204. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691616666070
• Nişancı, Z. (2023). Faith and religiosity in Türkiye. International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT).
• Pusch, S., Mund, M., Hagemeyer, B., & Finn, C. (2019). Personality development in emerging and young adulthood: A study of age differences. European Journal of Personality, 33(3), 245-263. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2181
• Raine, A., Dodge, K., Loeber, R., Gatzke-Kopp, L., Lynam, D., Reynolds, C., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., & Liu, J. (2006). The reactive-proactive aggression questionnaire: Differential correlates of reactive and proactive aggression in adolescent boys. Aggressive Behavior, 32(2), 159-171. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.20115
• Ramirez, J., & Andreu, J. (2003). Aggression’s typologies. Revue Internationale de Psychologie Sociale, 16(3), 125-141. Retrieved from http://pascal-francis.inist.fr/vibad/index.php?action=getRecordDetail&idt=15279321
• Rosen, L. H., & Underwood, M. K. (2010). Facial attractiveness as a moderator of the association between social and physical aggression and popularity in adolescents. Journal of School Psychology, 48(4), 313-333. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2010.03.001
• Rosseel, Y. (2012). Lavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling and more Version 0.5-12 (BETA). http://cran.r-project.org/.
• Sanchez, D. T., & Crocker, J. (2005). How investment in gender ideals affects well-being: The role of external contingencies of self-worth. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29(1), 63-77. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2005.00169.x
• Sandstrom, M. J., & Jordan, R. (2008). Defensive self-esteem and aggression in childhood. Journal of Research in Personality, 42(2), 506-514. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2007.07.008
• Schumacker, R. E., & Lomax, R. G. (2004). A beginner’s guide to structural equation modeling (3rd ed.). Psychology Press. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705510802154356
• Shepperd, J. A., Miller, W. A., & Smith, C. T. (2015). Religiousness and aggression in adolescents: The mediating roles of self‐control and compassion. Aggressive Behavior, 41(6), 608-621. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21600
• South Richardson, D. (2014). Everyday aggression takes many forms. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(3), 220-224. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721414530143
• Soykan, Ç. (2003). Anger and anger management. Kriz Journal, 11(2), 19-27. https://doi.org/10.1501/Kriz_0000000192
• Sözer, Ö.T., & Eskin, M. (2023). Religiosity, identity confusion, and psychological well-being in Turkish university students: The moderating role of religious orientation. Journal of Religion & Health, 62, 984-1006. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-022-01625-2
• Stanger, N., Kavussanu, M., McIntyre, D., & Ring, C. (2016). Empathy inhibits aggression in competition: The role of provocation, emotion, and gender. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 38(1), 4-14. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.2014-0332
• Su, Y., Martens, S., Aleman, A., Zhou, J., Xu, P., Luo, Y. J., & S. Goerlich, K. (2024). Increased sensitivity to social hierarchy during social competition versus cooperation. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 19(1): nsae060. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsae060
• Sutton, J., & Keogh, E. (2000). Social competition in school: Relationships with bullying, Machiavellianism and personality. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 70(3), 443-456. https://doi.org/10.1348/000709900158227
• Teng, Z., Liu, Y., & Guo, C. (2015). A meta-analysis of the relationship between self-esteem and aggression among Chinese students. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 21, 45-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2015.01.005
• Thomson, N. D., Bozgunov, K., Psederska, E., & Vassileva, J. (2019). Sex differences on the four-facet model of psychopathy predict physical, verbal, and indirect aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 45(3), 265-274. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21816
• Tosun, L. P., & Çoban, A. (2020). Physical appearance comparisons on social networking sites, body image, and depression. Current Approaches in Psychiatry, 12, 52-69. https://doi.org/10.18863/pgy.711187
• VandenBos, G. R. (2015). APA dictionary of psychology. American Psychological Association.
• Vongas, J. G., & Al Hajj, R. (2017). The effects of competition and implicit power motive on men’s testosterone, emotion recognition, and aggression. Hormones and Behavior, 92, 57-71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2017.04.005
• Wright, J. D., & Young, J. R. (2017). Implications of religious identity salience, religious involvement, and religious commitment on aggression. Identity, 17(2), 55-68. https://doi.org/10.1080/15283488.2017.1303382
• Zeigler-Hill, V. (2006). Contingent self-esteem and the interpersonal circumplex: The interpersonal pursuit of self-esteem. Personality and Individual Differences, 40(4), 713-723. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2005.08.009
• Zeigler-Hill, V., Clark, C. B., & Pickard, J. D. (2008). Narcissistic subtypes and contingent self-esteem: Do all narcissists base their self-esteem on the same domains? Journal of Personality, 76(4), 753-774. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2008.00503.x
• Zhang, H., & Zhao, H. (2020). Dark personality traits and cyber aggression in adolescents: A moderated mediation analysis of belief in virtuous humanity and self-control. Children and Youth Services Review, 119:105565. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105565