An Ethnobotanical Survey, Pharmacognostic Profile and Phytochemical Investigation of Chrysobalanus icaco L.

Abstract

The spice known as Chrysobalanus icaco L. (Chrysobalanaceae) was found near the coast of the Niger Delta in Nigeria. A survey on the ethnobotany of C. icaco seeds was conducted in Warri, Abraka, Delta State, Ezetu village, and Onitsha. Standard techniques were used to determine the pharmacognostic profile, phytochemical screening, physiochemical parameters, and elemental analysis. The findings showed that the Ezetu village people utilized the seeds traditionally for stomachache, anti-diarrhea, and post-child delivery. Histochemical analysis revealed the presence of tannins and proteins in the seed. The seed powder's physicochemical parameters are as follows: pH (1 g/100 ml distilled water) (6.00±0.00) and pH (10 g/100 ml), water-soluble ash (1.5±0.00%), alcohol soluble ash (1.0±0.00%), acid insoluble acid (0.25±0.00%), acid soluble ash (1.0±0.00%), and sulfated ash (2.0±0.00%). The seed oil's physicochemical properties were: density (0.936±0.0%), refractive index (1.491±0.00%), iodine value (15.9±0.01%), peroxide value (25.31±0.01%), acid value (29.44±0.00%), and ester value (34.75±0.21%). The elements discovered in the seed included lead, copper, nickel, chromium, cadmium, potassium, sodium, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, iron, and zinc. Phytochemicals found in the extract include reducing sugars, proteins, amino acids, fats, oils, alkaloids, tannins, phenolic compounds, flavonoids, cholesterol, steroids, terpenoids, triterpenoids, phytosterols, saponins, and cardiac glycosides. Quantitative phytochemical results include total phenolics (11.63±0.03), total flavonoids (2.35±0.06), total alkaloids (5.50±0.03), and total tannins (12.48±0.01). Consequently, it is possible to verify the authenticity of the seeds using these pharmacognostic features.

Keywords

• Chrysobalanus icaco
• Ethnobotanical survey
• Pharmacognosy
• Phytochemical investigation
• Chrysobalanus icaco seeds

References

1. Abdulkadir, A. G., Kendeson, C. A.., Mohammed, A. D., Sabo, B., Obiagwu, I. C. & Samuel, N. S. (2023). Determination of heavy metals concentration in some selected vegetables from Mamudo, Potiskum local Government Area, Yobe State. Journal of Chemical Society of Nigeria, 48, 1.
2. Adegbe, A. A., Larayetan, R. A. & Omojuwa, T. J. (2016). Proximate analysis, physicochemical properties, and chemical constituents’ characterization of Moringa oleifera (Moringaceae) seed oil using GC-MS analysis. American Journal of Chemistry, 6(2), 23-28
3. African Pharmacopoeia. (1986). General methods and for analysis. OAU/SRTC Scientific Publications. Lagos. P.137-149
4. Anokwah, D., Asante-Kwatia, E., Mensah, A, Y., Danquah, C, A., Harley, B. K., Amponsah, I. K. & Oberer, L. (2021). Bioactive constituents with antibacterial, resistance modulation, anti-biofilm formation and efflux pump inhibition properties from Aidia genipiflora stem bark. Clin Phytosci, 7, 28
5. Aremu, M. O. & Akinwumi, O. D. (2014). Extraction, compositional, and physicochemical characteristics of cashew (Anarcadium occidentale) nuts reject oil. Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, 3, 33-40
6. Bahl, H. (2005). Extracellular glycosyl hydrolases from clostridia. Advances in Applied Microbiology. 2005.
7. Baidoo, M. F., Asante-Kwatia, E., Mensah, A. Y., Sam, G. H. & Amponsah, I. K. (2019). Pharmacognostic characterization and development of standardization parameters for the quality control of Entada africana Guill. & Perr. Journal of Applied Research on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, 12, 36-42
8. Belsare, G. W. & Badne, S. G. (2017). Study on physico-chemical characterization of edible oils from agencies of Buldhana district. International Journal of Research in Pharmacy and Chemistry, 7(4), 525-529

9. CABI. (2013). Chrysobalanus icaco (coco plum). CABI Compendium. https: //doi.org /10.1079 /cabicompendium. 131222023.
10. Chandra, S. & Dave, R. (2009). Invitro models for antioxidant activity evaluation and some medicinal plants possessing antioxidant properties. African Journal of Microbiology Research, 3, 981-96
11. Choudhury, S., Chowdhury, H. R. & Sudhendu, M. (2013). Pharmacognostic studies of Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.). An important ethnomedicinal plant. International Journal of Current Research, 5(3), 643-648
12. Dahanukar, S.A., Kulkarni, A. & Rege, N. (2000). Pharmacology of medicinal plants and natural products. Indian Journal of Pharmacology, 32, S81-S118
13. De Aguiara, T. M., Luob, R., Mello, A. A., Azevedo-Meleiroc, C. H., Sabaa-Srurc, A. U. O., Trand, K. & Robert, E. S. (2017). Chemical characterization of cocoplum (Chrysobalanus icaco, L) seed oil and seeds. Journal of Regulatory Science, 5(2), 15–28
14. De Paulo, S. A., Teruszkin, B. I., Henriques, S. N., Oliveira, C. R., Coelho, K. M. A., Currie., C. M, da Costa. & C.M.G. (2000). Chrysobalanus icaco L. extract for anti-angiogenic potential observation. International Journal of Molecular Medicine, 5(6), 667-676
15. Duyusen, E. G. & Görkem, A. (2011). Comparison of acid digestion techniques to determine heavy metals in sediment and soil samples. GU J Sci, 24, 9–34.
16. El-hewehy, A., Mohsen, E., M. El-fishawy, A. & Fayed, M. A. A. (2024). Traditional, Phytochemical, Nutritional and Biological Importance of Pithecellobium dulce (Roxib.) Benth. Yuzuncu Yıl University Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 34(2), 354-380
17. Erhenhi, A. H., Lemy, E. E. & Ashibuogwu, C. C. (2016). Spices are used in the Ubulu-Uku community of Delta State. International Journal of Herbal Medicine, 4(3), 45
18. Ezeuko, A. S., Bamgboye, O. A., Jonathan. & Uchenna, D. O. (2017). Extraction, physicochemical, phytochemical analysis, and identification of some essential Monodora myristica (African nutmeg) seed oil compounds. Int. J. Innov. Res. Adv. Studies, 4, 406-410
19. Fatokun, T. O., Esievo, K. B., Ibrahim, J. A. & Kunle, F. O. (2017). Pharmacognostic evaluation of the leaves and roots of Cassia sieberiana DC. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy, 9(10), 157-164
20. Ferreira-Machado, S. C., Gagliardi, R. F., Nunes, A. P. M., Rodrigues, M. P., Dantas, F. J. S., De Mattos, J. C. P., Peregrin, C. A. F., Moura, E. G. & Caldeira-de-Araujo, A. (2014). Antidiabetic and genotoxic effects on Wistar rats treated with aqueous extract from Chrysobalanus icaco L. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research, 8(1), 52-57
21. Fonseca-Kruel, V. S., Rodrigues, N. M. E., Dunn, A. D. S. & Prance, G. T. (2020). Ethnobotany of Bajiru (Chrysobalanus icaco L.) In a Coastal Vegetation of Southeastern Brazil. Research Square, 1, 15
22. Franco, B. D. G. M. & Landgraf, M. (1996). Microbiologia dos alimentos. São Paulo: Atheneu
23. Hammad, M. & Suleiman, A. (2017). Ethnobotanical, phytochemical, and biological study of Tamarix aphylla and Aerva javanica medicinal plants growing in the Asir Region, Saudi Arabia. Tropical Conservation Science, 12, 1–14
24. Janick, J. & Paull, R. E. (2008). The encyclopedia of fruit & nuts, [ed. by Janick, J., Paull, R. E.]. Wallingford, UK: CABI.
25. Josephine Ozioma E. O. & Antoinette Nwamaka Chinwe O. (2019). Herbal medicines in african traditional medicine. Herbal Medicine, 10.5772/intechopen.80348
26. Karahan, F. (2023). Evaluation of trace element and heavy metal levels of some ethnobotanically important medicinal plants used as remedies in Southern Turkey in terms of human health risk. Biol Trace Elem Res, 201, 493–513
27. Kokate, C. K. (1986). Practical Pharmacognosy, 1st Ed Vallabh Prakashan, New Delhi. p. 15–30.
28. Mahajan, C. P. & Aher. A. N. (2017). A Review on Ethnobotanical, Phytochemical and Pharmacological activities of Quisqualis indica Linn. Res. J. Pharmacognosy and Phytochem, 9(1), 47-52
29. Mandal. S., Choudhury, S. & Rahaman, C.H. (2013). Pharmacognostic studies of Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) Planch-an important ethnomedicinal plant. International Journal of Current Research, 5(3), 643-648
30. Maqbool, F. F., Elnima, E. A., Shayoub, M. E., Elnazeer, I. H., Muddathir, S. A. (2018). Pharmacognostic, physicochemical standardization, and phytochemical analysis of Quercus infecoria galls. American Journal of Research Communication, 6(10), 1-17
31. McCune, L., & Johns, T. (2002). Antioxidant activity in medicinal plants associated with the symptoms of diabetes mellitus used by the indigenous peoples of the North American boreal forest. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 82, 197-200.
32. Milan, S. (2011). Total phenolic content, flavonoid concentration, and antioxidant activity of Marrubium peregrinum L. extracts. Kragujevac J. Sci, 33, 63-72
33. Ohemu, T. L., Bello, H. O., Datok, T. & Dafam, D. G. (2024). Piper guineense Schum. & Thonn. (Piperaceae)- a review of its pharmacognostic, phytochemical, ethnomedicinal and pharmacological properties. Journal Pharmacy & Bioresources, 21, 2: 42-50
34. Obia, O. C., Sonibare, M. A. & Adebodun, S. A. (2022). Pharmacognostic Standards for Uvaria chamae P. Beauv. Leaves (Annonaceae). Nig. J. Pharm. Res, 18 (2), 113-123
35. Obiajunwa, E. I., Adebajo, A. C. & Omobuwajo, O. R. (2002). Essential and trace element contents of some Nigerian medicinal plants. Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry, 252, 3: 473
36. Ogunka-Nnoka, C. U. & Mepba, H. D. (2008). Proximate composition and antinutrient contents of some common spices in Nigeria. The Open Food Science Journal, 2, 62-67
37. Olaniy, A. A. & Ogungbamila, F. O. (1991). Experimental Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Published by Shaneson C.I. Ltd. Ibadan, Nigeria. pp. 237
38. Onilude, H. A., Kazeem, M. I. & Adu, O. B. (2020). Chrysobalanus icaco: A review of its phytochemistry and pharmacology. Journal of Integrative Medicine, 19(1), 13-19
39. Orhevba, B. A., Sunmonu, M. O., & Ihiabe, P. A. (2017). Influence of moisture content on the yield and quality of tropical almond (Terminalia catappa) seed oil. Nigerian Research Journal of Engineering and Environmental Sciences, 2(2), 383-389
40. Owaba, A. D. C. & Miediegha, O., Bunu, S. J. (2017). Comparative physicochemical, spectroscopic, and elemental analyses of the seed oils of Parinari excelsa Sabinus and Chrysobalanus icaco L., Chrysobalanacea. Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, 2, 1
41. Ozarkar, K. R. (2005). Using a mouse model, studies on the anti-inflammatory effects of two herbs, Cissus quadrangularis L. and Valeriana Wallachia DC. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Mumbai, Mumbai.
42. Pandiyan, R. & Ilango, K. (2022). Pharmacognostical, physicochemical and physicochemical evaluation of Huberanthia senjianna (Annonaceae) leaf: an endemic tree of Gingee Hills Tamil Nadu India. J Pharm Pharmacogn Res, 10(1), 158–172
43. Percie du Sert, N., Hurst, V., Ahluwalia, A., Alam, S., Avey, M. T., Baker, M., Browne, W. J., Clark, A., Cuthill, I. C., Dirnagl, U., Emerson, M., Garner. P., Holgate, S. T., Howells, D. W., Karp, N. A., Lazic, S. E., Lidster, K., MacCallum, C. J., Macleod, M., Pearl, E. J., Petersen, O. H., Rawle, F., Reynolds, P., Rooney, K., Sena, E. S., Silberberg, S. D., Steckler, T. & Würbel. H. (2020). The ARRIVE guidelines 2.0: updated guidelines for reporting animal research. PLoS Biol, 18, 7
44. Presta, G. A., Santos-Filho, S. D., de Paoli, S., Giani, T. S., Maiworm, A. I., Brandão-Neto, J., Medeiros, A. C., de Souza da Fonseca. & Bernardo-Filho. M. (2007). Effects of Chrysobalanus icaco on the labeling of blood constituents with technetium-99m and on the shape of the red blood cells. Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology, 50, 145-152
45. Rajan, S., Suganya, H., Thirunalasundari, T. & Jeeva, S. (2011). Thyagarajan Thirunalasundari. 2011. Pharmacognostical and phytochemical studies of Mangifera indica seed kernel. Journal of Pharmacy Research, 4, 11
46. Rakib-Uz-Zaman, S. M., Iqbal, A., Mowna, S. A., Khanom, M. G., Al Amin, M. M. & Khan, K. (2020). Ethnobotanical study and phytochemical profiling of Heptapleurum hypoleucum leaf extract and evaluation of its antimicrobial activities against diarrhea-causing bacteria. J Genet Eng Biotechnol, 18, 1:18
47. Silva, J.P., Peres, A. R., Paixão, T. P., Silva, A. S., Baetas, A. C., Barbosa, W. L., Monteiro, M. C. & Andrade, M. A. (2017). Antifungal activity of hydroalcoholic extract of Chrysobalanus icaco against oral clinical isolates of Candida species. Pharmacognosy Research, 9, 1
48. Silva, I. M. & Peixoto, A. L. (2008). Abajurú (Chrysobalanus icaco L. and Eugenia rotundifolia Casar.) commercialized in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Brazilian Journal of Pharmacognosy, 19(1B), 325-332.
49. Singh, R., Verma, P. K. & Singh, G. (2012). Total phenolic, flavonoids, and tannin contents in different extracts of Artemisia absinthium. J Intercult Ethnopharmacol, 1(2), 101-104.
50. Singh T. (2017). Text and Practical Haematology for MBBS. Arya Publications, New Delhi, India.
51. Sree, T. L. & Vijayalakshmi, K. (2018). Proximate composition, nutritional evaluation, and mineral analysis in the leaves of an indigenous medicinal plant, Alternanthera sessilis. Int J Health Sci Res, 8(7), 55–62.
52. Sumitra, C., Menpara, D. & Desai, D. (2014). Pharmacognostic, phytochemical, physicochemical and fluorescence analysis of Terminalia bellerica leaf and stem. World. J. Pharm.Sci, 2(4), 390- 396.
53. Uwah, E. I., Gimba, M. & Gwaski, P. (2012). Determination of Zn, Mn, Fe, and Cu in spinach and lettuce cultivated in Potiskum, Yobe State, Nigeria. J. Agri. Econo. Develo, 1(4), 69–74
54. Vargas-Simon, C. E., Arellano, G. & García, Y. E. (1997). Propagación por estacas com hojas de icaco (Chrysobalanus icaco) y anatomía del enraizamento. Proced Internat Soc Trop Horticul, 41, 264-269.
55. Venancio, V. P., Marques, M. C., Almeida, M. R., Mariutti, L. R., Souza, V. C., Barbosa, F. Jr., Pires Bianchi, M. L., Marzocchi-Machado., C. M., Mercadante, A. Z. & Antunes, L. M. (2016). Chrysobalanus icaco L. fruits inhibit the NADPH oxidase complex and protect DNA against
56. doxorubicin-induced damage in Wistar male rats. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A, 79(20), 885–893.
57. Vilash, V., Suja, S. R., Latha, P. G., Aneesh Kumar, A. L., Ragesh, R. N. & Rajasekharan, S. (2016). Physicochemical Evaluation and Pharmacognostical Standardization of Pellionia heyneana Wedd. Leal. Pharmacogn J, 8(6), 551-556.
58. Wallis, T. E. (2005). Textbook of Pharmacognosy. 5th Ed. New delhi: CBS publisher and Distributors; P 561
59. Warra, A. A. (2011). Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) Seed oil extraction methods and its prospects in the cosmetic industry: A review. Bayero Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences. 4, 2
60. World Health Organization Guidelines. (1998). Quality control methods for medicinal plant materials. WHO, Geneva. p. 8-78
61. Yusuf, A. (2015). Phytochemical and biological studies on the seeds of Jatropha curcas Linn. (Euphorbiaceae). Department of Pharmacognosy and Drug Development, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria,
62. Zahir, E., Rehana, S., Mehwish, A. H. & Anjum, Y. (2014). Study of physicochemical properties of edible oil and evaluation of frying oil quality by Fourier Transform-infrared (FT-IR) Spectroscopy. Arabian Journal of Chemistry, 30, 1-7.
63. Zhang, W., Li, N., Feng, Y., Su, S., Li, T. & Bing, L. O. (2015). Analytical methods: unique quantitative method of acid value of edible oils and studying the impact of heating on edible oils by UV–Vis spectrometry. Food Chemistry, 185(15), 326-332