FİZİKSEL AKTİVİTE: BİLİNENİN ÇOK ÖTESİ

Yıl 2018, Cilt: 16 Sayı: 4, 158 - 178, 26.12.2018

Mehmet Cem Satman

Öz

Fiziksel aktivite için tasarlanmış olan insan
bedeninin, hareketsizlik ile beraber karşı karşıya kaldığı sorunlar hergeçen
gün artmaktadır. Yüzyıllar öncesinden fiziksel aktivitenin önemine dair
söylenmiş sözlerin haklılığı bugün herkes tarafından kabul görmektedir. Bu derleme ile fiziksel aktivitenin genel olarak herkes
tarafından kabul gören sağlığa faydalarının dışında, nörolojik etkileri, bu
etkilere bağlı olarak farklı yaş gruplarındaki zihinsel süreçler üzerindeki
rolü, bu süreçlerin bir sonucu olarak akademik başarının arttırılmasına dair
katkıları ortaya koyulmaya çalışılmaktadır. Bu çerçevede fiziksel aktivitenin öz
saygı, özgüven ve iyi olma hali gibi kavramlar ile ilişkisinin yanı sıra farklı
zihinsel problemler yaşayan bireylerin tedavileri için kullanımından, travma
sonrası stres bozukluğunun aşılmasındaki katkılarına kadar pek çok nokta da ele
alınmıştır. Okul öncesi eğitim alan çocukları, ergenleri ve üniversite
öğrencilerini içeren çok geniş bir yelpazede, eğitime fiziksel aktivitenin
dahil edilmesi yolu ile çok daha büyük oranda fiziksel ve zihinsel gelişim
gerçekleştirilebileceği ifade edilmeye çalışılmıştır. Fiziksel aktivitenin
eğitim-öğretim içerisindeki yerinin ne kadar önemli olduğu inkar edilemez bir
gerçektir çünkü sağlıklı çocuk daha iyi öğrenir. Derleme içerisinde sunulan
bilgilerin ve araştırma raporlarının, gerek öğretmenler, gerek okul
yöneticileri gerekse veliler için çocukların geleceğini planlamaya yardımcı
olması umulmaktadır. Ayrıca her yaştan bireyin, fiziksel aktivitenin bu
yönlerini tanımalarıyla yaşamlarında olumlu bir değişime yol açabileceklerine
inanılmaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Fiziksel Aktivite, Nörotransmitter, Bilişsel İşlevler

Kaynakça

• Aadland, K.V., Moe, V.F., Aadland, E, Anderssen, S.A, Resaland, G.K. ve Ommundsen, Y. (2017). Relationships between physical activity, sedentary time, aerobic fitness, motor skills and executive function and academic performance in children. Mental Health and Physical Activity,12, 10-18.
• Abdin, S.,Welch, R.K., Byron-Daniel, J. ve Meyrick, J. (2018) The effectiveness of physical activity interventions in improving well-being across office-based workplace settings: a systematic review. public health, 160, 70-76.
• Aksoy, A., Bilgiç, P., Ersoy. G. (2008). Fiziksel Aktivite, Beslenme ve Sağlıklı Yaşam, Hacettepe Üniversitesi - Sağlık Bilimleri Fakültesi, Beslenme ve Diyetetik Bölümü. Şubat 2008, Ankara.
• Anderson, S.E.,Cohen, P., Naumova, E.N., Jacques, P.F ve Must. A. (2007). Adolsecent Obesity and Risk for Subsequent Major Depressive Disorder and Anxiety Disorder and Anxiety Disorder, Prospective Evidence, Psychomatic Medicine, 69, 740-747.
• Artal, M., Sherman, C. ve Di Nubile, N.A. (1998) Exercise Against Depression, The Physician and Sports medicine, 26:10, 55-70.
• Antunes, H.K.M., Santos, R.F., Cassilhas, R.F., Santos, R.V.T., Bueno, O.F.A. ve Mello, M.T. (2006). Reviewing on physical exercise and the cognitive function. Rev Bras Med Esporte. Vol. 12, N: 2, 97-102.
• Babyak, M., Blumenthal, J. A., Herman, S., Khatri, P., Doraiswamy, M., Moore, K., Craighead, W. E., Baldewicz, T. T., & Krishnan, K. R. (2000). Exercise treatment for major depression: maintenance of therapeutic benefit at 10 months. Psychosomatic Medicine, 62, 633–638.
• Batoulia, S.A.H. ve Saba V. (2017). At least eighty percent of brain grey matter is modifiable by physical activity: A review study. Behavioural Brain Research, Vol:332, 204–217.
• Benedict, C., Brooka, S.J., Kullbergb, J., Nordenskjöld, R., Burgos, J. Grevès, M.L., Kilander, L., Larssonb, E.M., Johansson, L., Ahlströmb, H., Lindd, L. ve Schiöth, H.B. (2013). Association between physical activity and brain health in older adults. Neurobiology of Aging 34 (2013) 83–90.
• Best, J. R., & Miller, P. H. (2010). A developmental perspective on executive function. Child Development, 81, 1641–1660.
• Blair, S.N. ve Morris, J.N. (2009). Healthy Hearts-and the Universal Benefits of Being Physically Active: Physical Activity and Health. Ann Epidemiol, Vol:19, 253–256.
• Blondell, S.J., Hammersley-Mather, R., Lennert Veerman, J., (2014). Does physical activity prevent cognitive decline and dementia?: a systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. BMC Public Health,14, 1036–1061.
• Braet C., Mervielde. I. ve Vandereyken W. (1997). Psychological Aspects of Childhood Obesity: A Controlled Study in a Clinical and Nonclinical Sample. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, (22) 59-71.
• Bruijn, A.G.M., Hartman, E., Kostons, D., Visscher, C. ve Bosker, R.J. (2018) Exploring the relations among physical fitness, executive functioning, and low academic achievement. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 167, 204–221.
• Bilgin, E. (2017). Ortaokul Öğrencilerinin Fiziksel Uygunlukları ve Akademik Başarı Düzeyleri Arasındaki İlişkinin İncelenmesi. Hacettepe Üviversitesi, Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Spor Bilimleri ve Teknoloji Programı, Yayımlanmış Yüksek Lisans Tezi.
• Budde, H., Rehage, C. Pietrabyk, S., Riberio, P. ve Tidow, G. (2008). Acute coordinative exercise improves attentional performance in adolescents. Neuroscience Letters, 441 (2), 219-223.
• Caddick, N. ve Smith, B. (2014). The impact of sport and physical activity on the well-being of combat veterans: A systematic review. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 15, 9-18.
• Castelli, D., Centeio, E.E., Hwang, J., Barcelona, J.M., Glowacki, E.M., Calvert, H.G. ve Nicksic, H.M. (2014). The History of Physical Activity and Academic Performance Research: Informing the Future. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 119-148.
• Carlier, M., Turrell, Y. ve Dione M. (2014) Cognitive benefits of physical activity increased when producing rhythmic actions. Social and Behavioral Sciences, 126, 235 – 236.
• Chaddock L, Erickson KI, Prakash RS, VanPatter M, Voss MW, Pontifex MB, Raine LB, Hillman CH, Kramer AF. (2010). Basal ganglia volume is associated with aerobic fitness in preadolescent children. Dev Neurosci, 32, 249-256.
• Chenoll, M.P., Masso, X.G., Morales, J., Serra-An˜o, P., Solana-Tramunt, M., Gonza´lez, L.M. ve Toca-Herrera, J.L. (2015). Physical activity, physical fitness and academic achievement in adolescents: a self-organizing maps approach. Health Education Research, Vol.30 no.3, 436–448.
• Cian, C., Barraud, P. A., Melin, B., & Raphel, C. (2001). Effects of fluid ingestion on cognitive function after heat stress or exercise-induced dehydration. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 42, 243–251.
• Coe D, Pivarnik J. ve Womack C. (2006). Effect of physical education and activ-ity levels on academic achievement in children. Med Sci Sports Exercise, 38(8):1515–1519.
• Cooper, S.B., Bandelow, S., Nute, M.L., Dring, K.J., Stannard, R.L., Morris, J.G. ve Nevill, M.E. (2016). Sprint-based exercise and cognitive function in adolescents. Preventive Medicine Reports, 4,155–161.
• Collins, K. ve Staples, K. (2017). The role of physical activity in improving physical fitness in children with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 69, 49–60.
• Danga, A.K., Nathanb, N., Lec, Q.N.H., Nguyend, L.H., Nguyena, H.L.T. Nguyena, C.T., Doa, H.P., Nguyena, T.H.T., Trana, T.T., Nguyene, T.A., Tranf, B.X., Latking, C.A., Zhangi, M.W.B. ve Hoj, R.C.M (2018). Associations between internet addiction and physical activity among Vietnamese youths and adolescents. Children and Youth Services Review, 93, 36–40.
• Department of Health PA, Health Improvement and Protection, (2011). Start Active, Stay Active: A report on physical activity from the four home countries’. Chief Medical Officers. London: Department of Health.
• Diamond A. (2012). Activities and Programs That Improve Children’s Executive Functions. Current Directions in Psychological Science 21(5) 335– 341.
• Diamond A. (2013). Executive functions. Annu Rev Psychol. 64:135–168.
• Dishman RK, Berthoud H, Booth FW. (2006). Neurobiology of exercise. Obesity, 14(3):345–356.
• Donnelly, J.E., Lambourne, K. (2011). Classroom-based physical activity, cognition, and academic achievement. Preventive Medicine, 52, 36–42.
• Doréa, I., O'Loughlinb, J.L., Schnitzerd, M.E. Dattab, G.D. ve Fournier L. (2018). The longitudinal association between the context of physical activity and mental health in early adulthood. Mental Health and Physical Activity, 14, 121–130.
• Editorial, (2016). Neuroplasticity: Effects of Physical and Cognitive activity on brain structure and function. NeuroImage. 131, 1–3.
• Erickson, K., I., Hillman, C. H. ve Kramer, A.F. (2015). Physical activity, brain, and cognition. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, Vol:4, 27–32.
• Editorial, (2013). Editorial for physical activity and cognitive functioning, Mental Health and Physical Activity, Vol:6, 163-164.
• Egger, F., Conzelmann, A. ve Schmidt, M. (2018). The effect of acute cognitively engaging physical activity breaks on children's executive functions: Too much of a good thing? Psychology of Sport & Exercise, 36 178–186.
• Erickson, K.I., Prakash, R.S., Voss, M.W., Chaddock, L., Hu, L., Morris, K.S., White, S.M., Wójcicki, T.R., McAuley, E.,Kramer, A.F., (2009). Aerobic fitness is associated with hippocampal volume in elderly humans, Hippocampus 19, 1030–1039, http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/hipo.20547.
• Erickson, K. I., Voss, M. W., Prakash, R. S., Basak, C., Szabo, A., Chaddock, L., Kim, J. S., Heo, S., Alves, H., White, S. M., Wojcicki, T. R., Mailey, E., Vieira, V. J., Martin, S. A., Pence, B. D., Woods, J. A., McAuley, E., & Kramer, A. F. (2011). Exercise training increases size of hippocampus and improves memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108, 3017–3022.
• Ellemberg, D. ve St-Louis-Descheˆnes, M. (2010) The effect of acute physical exercise on cognitive function during development. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 11, 122–126.
• Etnier JL, Salazar W, Landers DM. (1997). The influence of physical fitness andexercise upon cognitive functioning: a meta-analysis. J Sport Exerc Psychol. 19:249–277.18 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK67031/
• Frith, E. ve Loprinzi, P.D. (2018). Physical activity is associated with higher cognitive function among adults at risk for Alzheimer’s disease. Complementary Therapies in Medicine, 36, 46–49.
• Fitzsimmons, P.T., Maher, J.P., Doerksen, S.E., Elavsky, S.,Rebar, A.L., Conroy, D.E. (2014). A daily process analysis of physical activity, sedentary behavior, and perceived cognitive abilities. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, Vol:15,498-504.
• Gaertner, B., Buttery, A.K., Finger, J.D., Wolfsgruber, S., Wagner, M. ve Busch, M.A. (2018). Physical exercise and cognitive function across the life span: Results of a nationwide population-based study. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 21, 489–494.
• Greeffa, J.W., Boskerb, R.J., Oosterlaand, J., Visschera, C., Hartman, E. (2018). Effects of physical activity on executive functions, attention and academic performance in preadolescent children: a meta-analysis. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 21, 501–507.
• Gomez-Pinilla, F., & Hillman, C. (2013). The influence of exercise on cognitive abilities. Comprehensive Physiology, 3, 403–428.
• Gunter, R.B., McEwan, D. ve Kamarhie, A. (2017). Physical activity and body image among men and boys: A meta-analysis. Body Image, 22, 114–128.
• Güldoğan, E. (2015). Şizofreni hastalarında fiziksel aktivitenin beyin yapılarına etkisi - bir değerlendirme. Researchgate, DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.3331.3446
• Haapala, E. (2012). Physical Activity, Academic Performance and Cognition in Children and Adolescents. A Systematic Review. Baltic Journal of Health and Physical Activity, Volume 4, No 1, 53-61.
• Haapalaa, E. A., Väistö, J., Lintu, N., Westgate, K., Ekelundd, U., Poikkeus,A.M., Brage, S. ve Lakka, T.A. (2017). Physical activity and sedentary time in relation to academic achievement in children. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 20, 583–589.
• Hawker, C.L. (2012). Physical activity and mental well-being in student nurses. Nurse Education Today, 32, 325–331.
• Hillman, C.H., Erickson, K.I., Kramer, A.F. (2008). Be smart, exercise your heart: exercise effects on brain and cognition, Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 9 58–65, http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2298.
• Hillman, C. H.(2006). Physical activity and cognitive function in a cross-section of younger and older community-dwelling individuals. Health Psychol. 25, 678–687.
• Hjorth, M.F., Sørensen, L.B., Andersen, R., Dyssegaard, C.B., Ritz, C., Tetens, I., Michaelsen, K.F., Astrup, A., Egelund, A. ve Sjödin, A. (2016). Normal weight children have higher cognitive performance – Independent of physical activity, sleep, and diet. Physiology & Behavior, 165, 398–404.
• Howie EK, Pate RR. (2012). Physical activity and academic achievement in children: a historical perspective. J Sport Health Sci, 1(3):160–169.
• Jedrziewskia, M.K., Lee, V., ve Trojanowskia, J.Q. (2007). Physical activity and cognitive health. Alzheimer’s & Dementia, 3, 98–108.
• Joseph, N.M. ve Wang, P.R.J. (2018). Cultural factors associated with physical activity among U.S. adults: An integrative review. Applied Nursing Research, 42, 98–110.
• Keeley, T.H.J. ve Fox, K.R. (2009). The impact of physical activity and fitness on academic achievement and cognitive performance in children. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology. Vol. 2, No. 2, 198-214.
• Kesavayuth, D., Liang, Y. ve Zikos, V. (2018). An active lifestyle and cognitive function: Evidence from China. The Journal of the Economics of Ageing, 12, 183–191.
• Kramer, A. F. (1999). Aging, fitness, and neurocognitive function. Nature, 400, 418–419.
• Kristjansson A, Sigfusdottir I, Allegrante J. (2010). Health behavior and academic achievement among adolescents: the relative contribution of dietary habits, physical activity, body mass index, and self-esteem. Health Educ Behav., 37(1):51-64.
• Kucyi, A., Alsuwaidan, M.T., Liauw, S.S. ve McIntyre, R.S. Aerobic Physical Exercise as a Possible Treatment for Neurocognitive Dysfunction in Bipolar Disorder, Postgraduate Medicine, 122:6, 107-116.
• Kwak, L., Kremers, S.P.J., Bergman, P., Ruiz, J.R., Rizzo, N.S. ve Sjo¨ stro¨m, M. (2009). Associations between Physical Activity, Fitness, and Academic Achievement. The Journal of Pediatrics, Vol. 155, No. 6
• Lin, T. W., & Kuo, Y. M. (2013). Exercise benefits brain function: the monoamine connection. Brain Sciences, 3, 39–53.
• Martin A, Saunders DH, Shenkin SD, Sproule J. (2014). Lifestyle intervention for improving school achievement in overweight or obese children and adolescents. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Issue 3. Art. No.: CD009728.DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD009728.pub2.
• Maughan, R.J., Shirreffs, S.M. ve Watson, P. (2007) Exercise, Heat, Hydration and the Brain, Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 26:sup5, 604-612.
• McNeill, J., Howard, S.J., Vella, S.A., Santos, R., Cliff, D.P. (2018) Physical activity and modified organized sport among preschool children: Associations with cognitive and psychosocial health, Mental Health and Physical Activity.
• Meeusen, R. ve Piacentini, M. (2001) Exercise and Neurotransmission: A Window to the Future? European Journal of Sport Science, 1:1, 1-12
• Meeusen, R. Hasegawa, H. ve Piacentini, M. F.(2005) Brain microdialysis and its application for the study of neurotransmitter release during exercise, International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 3:3, 263-284.
• Miyamoto, T., Hashimoto, S., Yanamoto, H., Ikawa, M., Nakano, N., Sekiyama, T., Kou, K., Kashiwamura, S.I., Takeda, C. ve Fujioka, H. (2018). Response of brain-derived neurotrophic factor to combining cognitive and physical exercise. European Journal of Sport Science, 1-9.
• Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The Unity and Diversity of Executive Functions and Their Contributions to Complex “Frontal Lobe” Tasks: A Latent Variable Analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49–100.
• Owen, K.B., Parker, P.D., Astell-Burt, T. ve Lonsdale, C. (2018). Regular Physical Activity and Educational Outcomes in Youth: A Longitudinal Study. Journal of Adolescent Health, 62, 334–340.
• Ruiz JR, Moreno LA, Ortega FB et al. (2010). Physical activity, fitness, weight status, and cognitive performance in adolescents. J Pediatr; 157(6):917–922, e5https://kundoc.com/pdf-physical-activity-fitness-weight-status-and-cognitive-performance-in-adolescents.html
• Park, H.Y., Kim, C.J., Kwak,H.B., No,M.H., Heo,J.H., Kim, T.W. (2018). Physical exercise prevents cognitive impairment by enhancing hippocampal neuroplasticity and mitochondrial function in doxorubicin-induced chemobrain. Neuropharmacology, 133,451-461.
• Pearce, M.J, Boergers, J. ve Prinstein, M.J (2012) Adolescent Obesity, Overt and Relational Peer Victimization, and Romantic Relationships, Obesity Research, Vol. 10 No. 5, 386-393.
• Pesce C. (2012). Shifting the focus from quantitative to qualitative exercise char-acteristics in exercise and cognition research. J Sport Exerc Psychol. 34(6):766–786.
• Praag, V.H., Kempermann G, Gage FH. (1999). Running increases cell proliferation and neurogenesis in the adult mouse dentate gyrus. Nature Neuroscience, 2, 266–270.
• Ploughman, M. (2008). Exercise is brain food: The effects of physical activity on cognitive function, Developmental Neurorehabilitation, 11:3, 236-240.
• Prohaska, T. R. ve Peters, K.E. (2007). Physical activity and cognitive functioning: Translating research to practice with a public health approach. Alzheimer’s & Dementia, 3, 58–64.
• Ptomey, L.T., Szabo, A.N., Willis, E.A., Gorczyca, A. M.,Greene,J.L., Danon, J.C. ve Donnelly, J.E. (2018) Changes in cognitive function after a 12-week exercise intervention in adults with Down syndrome. Disability and Health Journal, Vol:11, 486-490.
• Rasberry, C.N., Lee, S.M., Robin, L., Laris, B.A., Russell, L.A.,Coyle, K.K ve Nihiser, A.J. (2011). The association between school-based physical activity, including physical education and academic performance: A systematic review of the literature. Preventive Medicine, 52, S10–S20.
• Ratey, J.J. ve Loehr, J.E. (2011). The positive impact of physical activity on cognition during adulthood: a review of underlying mechanisms, evidence, and recommendations. Rev. Neurosci., 22, 1-15.
• Shephard, R. J. (1996). Habitual physical activity and academic performance. Nutr. Rev. 54: 32–36.
• Sigfúsdóttir ID, Kristjánsson AL, Allegrante JP. (2007). Health behaviour and academic achievement in Icelandic school children. Health Educ Res, 22(1):70–80.36.
• Singh, A., Twisk, J.W.R., Uijtdewilligen, L. ve Paw, M.C.A (2012). Physical Activity and Performance at School A Systematic Review of the Literature Including a Methodological Quality Assessment Arch Pediatr Adolesc. Med. Vol. 166 (No. 1), 49-54.
• Strasser, B. ve Fuchs, B. (2015). Role of physical activity and diet on mood, behavior, and cognition, Neurology, Psychiatry and Brain Research, Vol:21, 118–126. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4061837/
• Stubbsa, B., Koyanagic, A., Hallgren, M., Firthf, J., Richards, J. Schuch, F. Rosenbaum, S., Mugishak, J., Veronese, N., Lahti, J. ve Vancampfort, D. (2017). Physical activity and anxiety: A perspective from the World Health Survey. Journal of Affective Disorders, 208, 545–552.
• Syvaoja, H. (2014). Physical Activity and Sedentary Behaviour in Association with Academic Performance and Cognitive Functions in school-aged children. Phd thesis, Research Center for Sport and Health Sciences, Jyväskylä.
• Lapa, T.P. (2015). Physical Activity Levels and Psychological Well-Being: A Case. Study of University Students Social and Behavioral Sciences, 186, 739 – 743.
• Lees, C. ve Hopkins, J. (2013). Effect of aerobic exercise on cognition, academic achievement, and psychosocial function in children: a systematic review of randomized control trials. Prev Chronic Dis. Oct 24;10:E174. doi: 10.5888/pcd10.130010.
• Lerchea, S., Gutfreunda, A., Brockmanna, K., Hobert, M.A., Wurstera, I., Sünkela, U., Eschweilerc, G.W., Metzgerc, F.G., Maetzlera, W. ve Berga, D. (2018). Effect of physical activity on cognitive flexibility, depression and RBD in healthy elderly. Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery, 165, 88–93.
• Letter to the Editor. (2018). Depression and the benefits of physical activity. Science & Sports, Vol: 33, 56-57.
• L. Bezzola, S. Mérillat, C. Gaser, L. Jäncke. (2011). Training-Induced neural plasticity in golf novices, J. Neurosci. 3112444–12448. http://www.jneurosci.org/content/31/35/12444
• Polich, J. & Lardon, M. (1997). P300 and long term physical exercise. Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 103, 493–498.
• Schaeffer DJ, Krafft CE, Schwarz NF, Chi L, Rodrigue AL, Pierce JE, Allison JD, Yanasak NE, Liu T, Davis CL et al.: (2018). An 8- month exercise intervention alters frontotemporal white matter integrity in overweight children. Psychophysiology, 51:728-733.
• Schmidt M. ve Jäger K, Egger F. (2015). Cognitively engaging chronic physical activity, but not aerobic exercise, affects executive functions in primary school children: a group-randomized controlled trial. J Sport Exerc Psychol. 37(6):575–591.21.
• Sur, S ve Sinha, V.K. (2009). Event-related potential: An overview. Industrial Psychiatry Journal, Vol:18, 70-73.
• Stimpsona, N. J., Davisonb, G. ve Javadi, A.H. (2018). Joggin’ the Noggin: Towards a Physiological Understanding of Exercise- Induced Cognitive Benefits. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 88 177–186.
• Stubbs, B., Chen, L.J., Chang , C. Sunf, W.S., Kug, P.W. Accelerometer-assessed light physical activity is protective of future cognitive ability: A longitudinal study among community dwelling older adults. Experimental Gerontology, 91 (2017) 104–109.
• Inoue, T., Ninuma, S. Hayashi, M., Okuda, A. Asaka, T. & Maejima, H. (2018), Effects of long-term exercise and low-level inhibition of GABAergic synapses on motor control and the expression of BDNF in the motor related cortex, Neurological Research, 40:1, 18-25.
• Taubert, M., Draganski, B., Anwander, A., Müller, K., Horstmann, A., Villringer, A., Ragert, P. (2010). Dynamic properties of human brain structure: learning-Related changes in cortical areas and associated fiber connections, J. Neurosci. 30 11670–11677.
• Themanson JR, Hillman C.H. (2006). Cardiorespiratory fitness and acute aerobic exercise effects on neuroelectric and behavioral measures of action monitoring. Neuroscience, 141(2):757–767.
• Tomporowski PD. (2003). Effects of acute bouts of exercise on cognition. Acta Psychol, 112(3):297–324.
• Tremblay, M.S., LeBlanc1, A.G., Kho, M.E., Saunders, T.J. Larouche, R., Colley, R. C. Goldfield, G. ve Gorber, S.C. (2011). Systematic review of sedentary behaviour and health indicators in school-aged children and youth. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 8:98
• Vaynman, S., Ying, Z., Gomez-Pinilla, F., & Hippocampal, B. D. N. F. (2004). mediates the efficacy of exercise on synaptic plasticity and cognition. European Journal of Neuroscience, 20, 2580–2590.
• Veen, V.D., Smeets, I. E. ve Derriks, M. (2010). Children with special educational needs in The Netherlands: Number, characteristics, and school career. Educational Research, 52, 15–43.
• Vancampfort, D., Stubbs, B.,Smith, L., Hallgren, M., Firth, J., Herring, M.P., Probst, M. ve Koyanagi, A. (2018). Physical activity and sleep problems in 38 low- and middle-income Countries. Sleep Medicine, 48, 140-147.
• Vazou, S. Pesce, C. ve Lakes, K. (2016). More than one road leads to Rome: a narrative review and meta-analysis of physical activity intervention effects on cognition in youth. Int J Sport Exerc Psychol, 1–26.23.
• Voss, M. V.,Carr, L. J., Clark, R. ve Weng, T. (2014). Revenge of the “sit” II: Does lifestyle impact neuronal and cognitive health through distinct mechanisms associated with sedentary behavior and physical activity? Mental Health and Physical Activity, xxx, 1-16.
• Watson, P. (2008) Nutrition, the brain and prolonged exercise, European Journal of Sport Science, 8:2, 87-96.
• White, R.L., Babic, M.J., Parker, D.P., Lubans, D.R., Astell-Burt, T., Lonsdale, C (2017). Domain-Specific Physical Activity and Mental Health: A Meta-analysis. Am J Prev Med, 52(5):653–666.
• W.H.O. (2016) http://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/obesity-and-overweight (Erişim tarihi 7 Mayıs 2018)
• W. H.O (2017). http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs385/en/(Erişim tarihi 10 Temmuz 2018)
• Whooten, R.C.,Perkins, M.E., Gerber, M.W. ve Taveras, E.M. (2018), Effects of Before-School Physical Activity on Obesity Prevention and Wellness. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 54(4):510–518.
• Willoughby, M.T., Wylie, A.C. ve Catellier, D.J. (2018), Testing the association between physical activity and executive function skills in early childhood. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 44, 82–89.
• Yöndem, Z.D. (2007). Eğitim Psikolojisi, 81, Pegem Yayıncılık, Ankara.
• Zheng, X ve Hasegawa, H. (2016). Central dopaminergic neurotransmission plays an important role in thermoregulation and performance during endurance exercise, European Journal of Sport Science, 16:7, 818-828.