Women’s Role in Violence and UN Women, Peace, and Security Agenda

Yıl 2024, Cilt: 16 Sayı: 1, 1 - 30, 23.02.2024

Çağlayan Başer

https://doi.org/10.53376/ap.2024.01

Öz

The UN’s Women, Peace, and Security (WPS) agenda emphasizes women’s victimhood and peacemaking roles. However, women participate in two-thirds of armed movements and affect conflict outcomes in unique gendered ways. This article argues that excluding female perpetrators from the WPS agenda generates new insecurities for them and broader societies. By highlighting women’s contribution to perpetuating conflict, I propose a framework to incite policymakers to view women’s empowerment as a mainstream security concern and implement policies aligned with the goals of the UN WPS Agenda. First, I explore reasons to avoid reinforcing gender norms that portray women as victims and peacemakers. These reasons encompass assessing: 1) women’s contributions to armed organizations, 2) their exclusion from post-conflict rehabilitation programs, 3) the limited visibility of human rights violations by women and the underrepresentation of male civilians as victims, and 4) “saving vulnerable women” rhetoric as a justification for Western power involvement. Then, I examine gender inequality as a fundamental cause enabling these factors, underscoring the need to regard gender inequality and traditional gender norms as central security concerns.

Anahtar Kelimeler

The Women Peace and Security Agenda, United Nations, Female Militants, Women in Political Violence, Gender Inequality

Kadınların Şiddetteki Rolü ve Birleşmiş Milletler’in Kadın, Barış ve Güvenlik Gündemi

Öz

Birleşmiş Milletler'in (BM) Kadın, Barış ve Güvenlik (KBG) gündemi kadınların mağduriyetini ve barışı sağlama rollerini vurgulamaktadır. Ancak, kadınlar, dünyadaki silahlı hareketlerin üçte ikisinde aktif olarak yer almakta ve çatışma sonuçlarını erkeklerden farklı şekillerde etkilemektedir. Bu makale, şiddet eylemlerine katılan kadınları KBG gündeminden dışlamanın, kadınlar için ve içinde bulundukları toplumlar için yeni güvenlik sorunlarına yol açtığını anlatmaktadır. Özellikle, silahlı çatışmaları devam ettirmede kadınların rollerini vurgulayarak, cinsiyet eşitsizliğini temel bir güvenlik sorunu olarak ele alan bir kavramsal çerçeve öne sürmektedir. Bu çerçevenin, liderler ve yasa yapıcıları, cinsiyet eşitliği için daha çok çaba sarfetmelerine ve BM KBG hedefleriyle uyumlu politikalar uygulamalarına teşvik etmesi beklenmektedir. Makale, öncelikle, kadınları yalnızca mağdur veya barışçıl olarak tasvir eden cinsiyet normlarını güçlendirmenin neden sakıncalı olduğunu dört ana başlıkta incelemektedir: 1) Kadınların silahlı örgütlere sağladıkları faydalar, 2) Kadınların çatışma sonrası rehabilite programlarından dışlanmaları, 3) Kadınların işledikleri insan hakları suçlarının daha az görünür olması ve erkek sivillerin mağduriyetinin kabul görmemesi, 4) “Mağdur kadınları kurtarma” söyleminin Batılı ülkeler tarafından işgallere zemin olarak kullanılması. Ardından, bu faktörlere ortaya çıkmasının arkasındaki ana neden olarak cinsiyet eşitsizliğini vurgulayıp, cinsiyet eşitsizliğini ve geleneksel cinsiyet normlarını temel ve anaakım güvenlik meselesi olarak ele almamız gerektiğini anlatmaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Kadın, Barış ve Güvenlik Gündemi, Birleşmiş Milletler, Kadın Militanlar, Kadınların Siyasi Şiddet Eylemleri, Toplumsal Cinsiyet Eşitliği

Kaynakça

• Al-Ali, Nadje Sadig and Nicola Christine Pratt (2006), "Women in Iraq: Beyond the Rhetoric", Middle East Reports, 239: 18–23.
• Alakoç, Burcu Pınar (2020), "Femme Fatale: The Lethality of Female Suicide Bombers", Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 43 (9): 796–814.
• Alemdar, Zeynep (2019), "Women, Peace and Security Agenda: A Roadmap for Turkey", Turkish Policy Quarterly, 18 (2): 51–57.
• Alexander, Audrey and Rebecca Turkington (2018), "Treatment of Terrorists: How Does Gender Affect Justice?", Combating Terrorism Center, 11 (8): 24–30.
• Alison, Miranda (2003), "Cogs in the Wheel? Women in the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam", Civil Wars, 6 (4): 37–54.
• Antonijević, Zorana (2022), "How We Have Won the Battle and Lost the Peace: Women, Peace and Security Agenda Twenty Years After", Journal of Regional Security, 17 (1): 5–24.
• Arat, Zehra F. Kabasakal (2015), "Feminisms, Women’s Rights, and the UN: Would Achieving Gender Equality Empower Women?", American Political Science Review, 109 (4): 674–689.
• Aroussi, Sahla (2017), "Women, Peace, and Security and the DRC: Time to Rethink Wartime Sexual Violence as Gender-Based Violence?", Politics & Gender, 13 (3): 488–515.
• Aroussi, Sahla (2021), "Strange Bedfellows: Interrogating the Unintended Consequences of Integrating Countering Violent Extremism with the UN’s Women, Peace, and Security Agenda in Kenya", Politics & Gender, 17 (4): 665–695.
• Asal, Victor and Amira Jadoon (2020), "When Women Fight: Unemployment, Territorial Control and the Prevalence of Female Combatants in Insurgent Organizations", Dynamics of Asymmetric Conflict, 13 (3): 258–281.
• Basu, Soumita, Kirby Paul and Shepherd Laura (2020), New Directions in Women, Peace and Security (Bristol: Bristol University Press).
• Başer, Çağlayan (2022), "Women Insurgents, Rebel Organization Structure, and Sustaining the Rebellion: The Case of the Kurdistan Workers’ Party", Security Studies, 31 (3): 381–416.
• Başer, Çağlayan (2024a), Public Preferences, Gender, and Foreign Support for Armed Movements (Book Monograph, under contract with Cambridge University Press).
• Başer, Çağlayan (2024b), “Gender Norms and Rebel Group Survivability” Working Paper.
• Blanchard, Eric M. (2003), "Gender, International Relations, and the Development of Feminist Security Theory", Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 28 (4): 1289–1312.
• Bond, Kanisha D., Kate Cronin Furman, Meredith Loken, Milli Lake, Sarah Elizabeth Parkinson and Anna Zelenz (2019), "The West Needs to Take the Politics of Women in ISIS Seriously", Foreign Policy. https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/03/04/the-west-needs-to-take-the-politics-of-women-in-isis-seriously/ (02.18.2024)
• Braithwaite, Alex and Luna B. Ruiz (2018), "Female Combatants, Forced Recruitment, and Civil Conflict Outcomes", Research & Politics, 5 (2): 1–8.
• Brockes, Emma (2009), "“What Happens in War Happens”", The Guardian, https://theguardian.com/world/2009/jan/03/abu-ghraib-lynndie-england-interview (17.05.2023).
• Bush, Lara (2001), "The Weekly Address Delivered by the First Lady, The American Presidency Project", https://presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/the-weekly-address-delivered-the-first-lady#axzz1j8AmghRh (16.05.2023).
• Carpenter, R. Charli (2003), "“Women and Children First”: Gender, Norms, and Humanitarian Evacuation in the Balkans 1991-95", International Organization, 57 (4): 661–694.
• Carpenter, R. Charli (2005), "“Women, Children and Other Vulnerable Groups”: Gender, Strategic Frames and the Protection of Civilians as a Transnational Issue", International Studies Quarterly, 49 (2): 295–334.
• Cohen, Dara Kay (2013), "Female Combatants and the Perpetration of Violence: Wartime Rape in the Sierra Leone Civil War", World Politics, 65 (3): 383–415.
• Coleman, Isobel (2004), "Post-Conflict Reconstruction: The Importance of Women’s Participation", Council on Foreign Relations, https://cfr.org/report/post-conflict-reconstruction-importance-womens-participation (16.05.2023).
• Dalton, Angela and Victor Asal (2011), "Is It Ideology or Desperation: Why Do Organizations Deploy Women in Violent Terrorist Attacks?", Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 34 (10): 802–819.
• Leonardo, Micaela (1985), "Morals, Mothers and Militarism: A Review Essay on Feminism and Antimilitarism", Feminist Studies, 11 (3): 599–618.
• Dirik, Dilar (2014), "“Badass” Kurdish Women", Al Jazeera, https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2014/10/29/western-fascination-with-badass-kurdish-women (17.05.2023).
• Duncanson, Claire (2019), "Beyond Liberal vs Liberating: Women’s Economic Empowerment in the United Nations’ Women, Peace and Security Agenda", International Feminist Journal of Politics, 21 (1): 111–130.
• Düzel, Esin (2018), "Fragile Goddesses: Moral Subjectivity and Militarized Agencies in Female Guerrilla Diaries and Memoirs", International Feminist Journal of Politics, 20 (2): 137–152.
• Eager, Paige Whaley (2016), From Freedom Fighters to Terrorists: Women and Political Violence (London: Routledge).
• Egnell, Robert and Mayesha Alam (2019), Women and Gender Perspectives in the Military: An International Comparison (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press).
• Eichler, Maya (2014), "Militarized Masculinities in International Relations", The Brown Journal of World Affairs, 21 (1): 81–93.
• Gentry, Caron E. (2012), "Thinking about Women, Violence, and Agency", International Feminist Journal of Politics, 14 (1): 79–82.
• Giri, Keshab and Roos Haer (2021), "Female Combatants and Durability of Civil War", Studies in Conflict & Terrorism: 1–22.
• Gonzalez-Perez, Margaret (2008), Women and Terrorism: Female Activity in Domestic and International Terror Groups (London: Routledge).
• Hamilton, Caitlin, Nyibeny Naam and Laura J. Shepherd (2020), Twenty Years of Women, Peace and Security National Action Plans: Analysis and Lessons Learned (Sydney: University of Sydney).
• Hannan, Carolyn (2013), "Feminist Strategies in International Organizations: The United Nations Context", Caglar, Gülay, Elisabeth Prügl, and Susanne Zwingel (Ed.), Feminist Strategies in International Governance (New York: Routledge):74-91
• Henshaw, Alexis (2019), Why Women Rebel: Understanding Women’s Participation in Armed Rebel Groups (New York: Routledge).
• Henshaw, Alexis (2022), "‘Women, Men, Boys, and Girls’: Analyzing the Implementation of Women, Peace, and Security in the United States", Foreign Policy Analysis, 18 (4): orac024
• Henshaw, Alexis Leanna (2017), "Making Violent Women Visible in the WPS Agenda", LSE Center for Women, Peace, Security: 1–8.
• Hudson, Heidi (2015), "A Double-Edged Sword of Peace? Reflections on the Tension between Representation and Protection in Gendering Liberal Peacebuilding", Turner, Mandy and Florian P. Kühn (Ed.s), The Politics of International Intervention (New York: Routledge).
• Hudson, Valerie M., Mary Caprioli, Bonnie Ballif-Spanvill, Rose McDermott and Chad F. Emmett (2009), "The Heart of the Matter: The Security of Women and the Security of States", International Security, 33 (3): 7–45.
• Jabbra, Nancy W. (2006), "Women, Words and War: Explaining 9/11 and Justifying U.S. Military Action in Afghanistan and Iraq", Journal of International Women’s Studies, 8 (1): 236–255.
• Karcher, Katharina (2013), Sisters in Arms? Female Participation in Leftist Political Violence in the Federal Republic of Germany since 1970 (Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Warwick)
• Kirby, Paul and Laura J. Shepherd (2016), "The Futures Past of the Women, Peace and Security Agenda", International Affairs, 92 (2): 373–392.
• Kreft, Anne-Kathrin and Mattias Agerberg (2023), "Imperfect Victims? Civilian Men, Vulnerability, and Policy Preferences", American Political Science Review 118 (1): 1–17.
• Lie, Tove Grete, Helga Malmin Binningsbø and Scott Gates (2007), Post-Conflict Justice and Sustainable Peace, World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 4191, (Washington, DC: World Bank).
• Loken, Meredith (2022), "Noncombat Participation in Rebellion: A Gendered Typology", International Security, 47 (1): 139–170.
• Loken, Meredith and Hilary Matfess (2023), "Introducing the Women’s Activities in Armed Rebellion (WAAR) Project, 1946–2015", Journal of Peace Research, 1-11.
• Loken, Meredith and Anna Zelenz (2018), "Explaining Extremism: Western Women in Daesh", European Journal of International Security, 3 (1): 45–68.
• Luciak, Ilja A. (1999), "Gender Equality in the Salvadoran Transition", Latin American Perspectives, 26 (2): 43–67.
• MacKenzie, Megan (2009), "Securitization and Desecuritization: Female Soldiers and the Reconstruction of Women in Post-Conflict Sierra Leone", Security Studies, 18 (2): 241–261.
• Mann, Bonnie (2006), "How America Justifies Its War: A Modern/Postmodern Aesthetics of Masculinity and Sovereignty", Hypatia, 21 (4): 147–163.
• Mann, Carol (2015), "Women in Combat: Identifying Global Trends", Shekhawat, Seema (Ed.), Female Combatants in Conflict and Peace: Challenging Gender in Violence and Post-Conflict Reintegration (London: Palgrave Macmillan UK): 20–35.
• Mazurana, Dyan E., Susan A. McKay, Khristopher C. Carlson and Janel C. Kasper (2002), "Girls in Fighting Forces and Groups: Their Recruitment, Participation, Demobilization, and Reintegration", Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 8 (2): 97–123.
• Meger, Sara (2016), "The Fetishization of Sexual Violence in International Security", International Studies Quarterly, 60 (1): 149–159.
• O’Neill, Jacqueline (2015), "Are Women the Key to Peace in Colombia?", Foreign Policy, https://foreignpolicy.com/2015/04/20/are-women-the-key-to-peace-in-colombia-farc-talks/ (14.05.2023).
• O’Rourke, Lindsey A. (2009), "What’s Special about Female Suicide Terrorism?", Security Studies, 18 (4): 681–718.
• Otto, Dianne (2010), "Power and Danger: Feminist Engagement with International Law Through the Un Security Council", The Australian Feminist Law Journal, 32: 97–121.
• Parkinson, Sarah Elizabeth (2013), "Organizing Rebellion: Rethinking High-Risk Mobilization and Social Networks in War", The American Political Science Review, 107 (3): 418–432.
• Pratt, Nicola and Sophie Richter-Devroe (2011), "Critically Examining UNSCR 1325 on Women, Peace and Security", International Feminist Journal of Politics, 13 (4): 489–503.
• Ratnayake, R., Olivier Degomme, Chiara Altare, Debarati Guha-Sapir, C. Bijleveld, S. Melhbaum, et al. (2008), "The Many Victims of War: Indirect Conflict Deaths", Global Burden of Armed Violence (Switzerland: Geneva Declaration Secretariat): 31-48. https://dial.uclouvain.be/pr/boreal/object/boreal:178696 (18.05.2023).
• Rayman, Paula M., Seth Izen and Emily Parker (2016), UNSCR 1325 in the Middle East and North Africa: Women and Security (United States Institute of Peace Special Report).
• Ruddick, Sara (1983), "Pacifying the Forces: Drafting Women in the Interests of Peace", Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 8 (3): 471–489.
• Şahin, Bilge (2021), "Mobile Hearings in the Eastern DRC: Prosecuting International Crimes and Implementing Complementarity at National Level", Journal of Eastern African Studies, 15 (2): 297–316.
• Şahin, Bilge and Sidonia Lucia Kula (2018), "What Women Want before Justice: Examining Justice Initiatives to Challenge Violence against Women in the DRC", International Journal of Transitional Justice, 12 (2): 296–313.
• Scharff, Xanthe (2023), "America Is Again Failing Afghanistan’s Women—and Itself", Foreign Policy. https://foreignpolicy.com/2023/03/08/united-states-afghanistan-taliban-women/ (15.06.2023).
• Sharlach, Lisa (1999), "Gender and Genocide in Rwanda: Women as Agents and Objects of Genocide", Journal of Genocide Research, 1 (3): 387–399.
• Shepherd, Laura (2008), Gender, Violence and Security: Discourse as Practice (Online: Bloomsbury Publishing).
• Shepherd, Laura J. (2011), "Sex, Security and Superhero(in)Es: From 1325 to 1820 and Beyond", International Feminist Journal of Politics, 13 (4): 504–521.
• Shepherd, Laura J. (2017), "The Women, Peace, and Security Agenda at the United Nations", Burke, Anthony and Rita Parker (Eds.), Global Insecurity: Futures of Global Chaos and Governance (London: Palgrave Macmillan UK): 139–158.
• Sjoberg, Laura (2009), "Introduction to Security Studies: Feminist Contributions", Security Studies, 18 (2): 183–213.
• Sjoberg, Laura (2018), "Feminist Security and Security Studies", Oxford Handbook of International Security (Oxford: Oxford University Press): 45–60.
• Sjoberg, Laura and Caron E. Gentry (2007), Mothers, Monsters, Whores: Women’s Violence in Global Politics (London: Zed Books).
• Stabile, Carol A. and Deepa Kumar (2005), "Unveiling Imperialism: Media, Gender and the War on Afghanistan", Media, Culture & Society, 27 (5): 765–782.
• Steflja, Izabela and Jessica Trisko Darden (2020), Women as War Criminals: Gender, Agency, and Justice (Stanford: Stanford University Press).
• Thomas, Jakana L. (2017), "Women’s Participation in Political Violence", Reveron, Derek S., Nikolas K. Gvosdev, and John A. Cloud (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of U.S. National Security (Oxford: Oxford University Press): 505–522
• Thomas, Jakana L. (2021), "Wolves in Sheep’s Clothing: Assessing the Effect of Gender Norms on the Lethality of Female Suicide Terrorism", International Organization, 75 (3): 769–802.
• Thomas, Jakana L. and Kanisha D. Bond (2015), "Women’s Participation in Violent Political Organizations", American Political Science Review, 109 (3): 488–506.
• Thomas, Jakana L and Reed M. Wood (2018), "The Social Origins of Female Combatants", Conflict Management and Peace Science, 35 (3): 215–232.
• Tickner, J. Ann and Laura Sjoberg (2013), Feminism and International Relations: Conversations about the Past, Present and Future (London: Routledge).
• Tickner, J. Ann and Jacqui True (2018), "A Century of International Relations Feminism: From World War I Women’s Peace Pragmatism to the Women, Peace and Security Agenda", International Studies Quarterly, 62 (2): 221–233.
• True, Jacqui (2012), The Political Economy of Violence against Women (Oxford: Oxford University Press).
• United Nations (2002), Women, Peace and Security: Study Submitted by the Secretary-General Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 1325 (2000) (New York: United Nations).
• United Nations Security Council Resolution 2106 (2013), S/RES/2106(2013), https://www.un.org/shestandsforpeace/content/united-nations-security-council-resolution-2106-2013-sres21062013 (18.05.2023).
• United Nations Security Council Resolution 2467 (2019), S/RES/2467 (2019), https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/atf/cf/%7B65BFCF9B-6D27-4E9C-8CD3-CF6E4FF96FF9%7D/s_res_2467.pdf (18.02.2023)
• Victor, Barbara (2003), Army of Roses: Inside the World of Palestinian Women Suicide Bombers (London: Robinson Publishing). (18.02.2024).
• Viterna, Jocelyn (2006), "Pulled, Pushed, and Persuaded: Explaining Women’s Mobilization into the Salvadoran Guerrilla Army", American Journal of Sociology, 112 (1): 1–45.
• Wood, Reed M. (2019), Female Fighters: Why Rebel Groups Recruit Women for War (New York: Columbia University Press).
• Wood, Reed M. and Lindsey Allemang (2022), "Female Fighters and the Fates of Rebellions: How Mobilizing Women Influences Conflict Duration", Conflict Management and Peace Science, 39 (5): 565–586.
• Wood, Reed M. and Jakana L. Thomas (2017), "Women on the Frontline: Rebel Group Ideology and Women’s Participations in Violent Rebellion", Journal of Peace Research, 54 (1): 31–46.
• Wood, Reed and Mark D Ramirez (2018), "Exploring the Microfoundations of the Gender Equality Peace Hypothesis", International Studies Review, 20 (3): 345–367.
• Young, Iris Marion (2003), "The Logic of Masculinist Protection: Reflections on the Current Security State", Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 29 (1): 1–25.